Appendix:Polish Swadesh list
This is a Swadesh list of words in Polish, compared with definitions in English.
Presentation edit
- For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
List edit
| № | English | Polish polszczyzna edit (207) | IPA (key) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I (1sg) | ja | /ja/ |
| 2 | you (2sg) | ty, pan, pani | /tɨ/, /pan/, /ˈpa.ɲi/ |
| 3 | he, she, it (3sg) | on, ona, ono | /ɔn/, /ˈɔ.na/, /ˈɔ.nɔ/ |
| 4 | we (1pl) | my | /mɨ/ |
| 5 | you (2pl) | wy, panowie, panie, państwo | /vɨ/, /paˈnɔ.vʲɛ/, /ˈpa.ɲɛ/, /ˈpaɲ.stfɔ/ |
| 6 | they (3pl) | oni, one | /ˈɔ.ɲi/, /ˈɔ.nɛ/ |
| 7 | this | ten, ta, to | /tɛn/, /ta/, /tɔ/ |
| 8 | that | tamten, tamta, tamto | /ˈtam.tɛn/, /ˈtam.ta/, /ˈtam.tɔ/ |
| 9 | here | tu, tutaj | /tu/, /ˈtu.taj/ |
| 10 | there | tam | /tam/ |
| 11 | who | kto | /ktɔ/ |
| 12 | what | co | /t͡sɔ/ |
| 13 | where | gdzie | /ɡd͡ʑɛ/ |
| 14 | when | kiedy | /ˈkʲɛ.dɨ/ |
| 15 | how | jak | /jak/ |
| 16 | not | nie | /ɲɛ/ |
| 17 | all | wszystko | /ˈfʂɨ.stkɔ/ |
| 18 | many | dużo, wiele | /ˈdu.ʐɔ/, /ˈvʲɛ.lɛ/ |
| 19 | some | kilka, nieco, trochę | /ˈkʲil.ka/, /ˈɲɛ.t͡sɔ/, /ˈtrɔ.xɛ/ |
| 20 | few | mało, niedużo, niewiele | /ˈma.wɔ/, /ɲɛˈdu.ʐɔ/, /ɲɛˈvʲɛ.lɛ/ |
| 21 | other | drugi, inny | /ˈdru.ɡʲi/, /ˈin.nɨ/ |
| 22 | one | jeden | /ˈjɛ.dɛn/ |
| 23 | two | dwa | /dva/ |
| 24 | three | trzy | /tʂɨ/ |
| 25 | four | cztery | /ˈt͡ʂtɛ.rɨ/ |
| 26 | five | pięć | /pʲɛɲt͡ɕ/ |
| 27 | big | duży, wielki | /ˈdu.ʐɨ/, /ˈvʲɛl.kʲi/ |
| 28 | long | długi | /ˈdwu.ɡʲi/ |
| 29 | wide | szeroki | /ʂɛˈrɔ.kʲi/ |
| 30 | thick | gruby | /ˈɡru.bɨ/ |
| 31 | heavy | ciężki | /ˈt͡ɕɛ̃ʂ.kʲi/ |
| 32 | small | mały | /ˈma.wɨ/ |
| 33 | short | krótki | /ˈkrut.kʲi/ |
| 34 | narrow | wąski | /ˈvɔ̃s.kʲi/ |
| 35 | thin | cienki | /ˈt͡ɕɛn.kʲi/ |
| 36 | woman | kobieta | /kɔˈbʲɛ.ta/ |
| 37 | man (adult male) | mężczyzna | /mɛ̃ʂˈt͡ʂɨz.na/ |
| 38 | man (human being) | człowiek | /ˈt͡ʂwɔ.vʲɛk/ |
| 39 | child | dziecko, dziecię | /ˈd͡ʑɛt͡s.kɔ/, /ˈd͡ʑɛ.t͡ɕɛ/ |
| 40 | wife | żona | /ˈʐɔ.na/ |
| 41 | husband | mąż | /mɔ̃ʂ/ |
| 42 | mother | matka | /ˈmat.ka/ |
| 43 | father | ojciec | /ˈɔj.t͡ɕɛt͡s/ |
| 44 | animal | zwierzę | /ˈzvʲɛ.ʐɛ/ |
| 45 | fish | ryba | /ˈrɨ.ba/ |
| 46 | bird | ptak | /ptak/ |
| 47 | dog | pies | /pʲɛs/ |
| 48 | louse | wesz | /vɛʂ/ |
| 49 | snake | wąż | /vɔ̃ʂ/ |
| 50 | worm | robak, czerw | /ˈrɔ.bak/, /t͡ʂɛrf/ |
| 51 | tree | drzewo | /ˈdʐɛ.vɔ/ |
| 52 | forest | las | /las/ |
| 53 | stick | kij, laska, patyk | /kʲij/, /ˈla.ska/, /ˈpa.tɨk/ |
| 54 | fruit | owoc | /ˈɔ.vɔt͡s/ |
| 55 | seed | nasiono, siemię, ziarno | /naˈɕɔ.nɔ/, /ˈɕɛ.mʲɛ/, /ˈʑar.nɔ/ |
| 56 | leaf | liść | /lʲiɕt͡ɕ/ |
| 57 | root | korzeń | /ˈkɔ.ʐɛɲ/ |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | kora | /ˈkɔ.ra/ |
| 59 | flower | kwiat | /kfʲat/ |
| 60 | grass | trawa | /ˈtra.va/ |
| 61 | rope | sznur, lina, powróz | /ʂnur/, /ˈlʲi.na/, /ˈpɔ.vrus/ |
| 62 | skin | skóra | /ˈsku.ra/ |
| 63 | meat | mięso | /ˈmʲɛ̃.sɔ/ |
| 64 | blood | krew | /krɛf/ |
| 65 | bone | kość | /kɔɕt͡ɕ/ |
| 66 | fat (noun) | tłuszcz, sadło | /twuʂt͡ʂ/, /ˈsa.dwɔ/ |
| 67 | egg | jajko, jajo | /ˈjaj.kɔ/, /ˈja.jɔ/ |
| 68 | horn | róg | /ruk/ |
| 69 | tail | ogon | /ˈɔ.ɡɔn/ |
| 70 | feather | pióro | /ˈpʲu.rɔ/ |
| 71 | hair | włos | /vwɔs/ |
| 72 | head | głowa | /ˈɡwɔ.va/ |
| 73 | ear | ucho | /ˈu.xɔ/ |
| 74 | eye | oko | /ˈɔ.kɔ/ |
| 75 | nose | nos | /nɔs/ |
| 76 | mouth | usta | /ˈu.sta/ |
| 77 | tooth | ząb | /zɔmp/ |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | język | /ˈjɛ̃.zɨk/ |
| 79 | fingernail | paznokieć | /pazˈnɔ.kʲɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 80 | foot | stopa | /ˈstɔ.pa/ |
| 81 | leg | noga | /ˈnɔ.ɡa/ |
| 82 | knee | kolano | /kɔˈla.nɔ/ |
| 83 | hand | ręka | /ˈrɛŋ.ka/ |
| 84 | wing | skrzydło | /ˈskʂɨ.dwɔ/ |
| 85 | belly | brzuch | /bʐux/ |
| 86 | guts | trzewia, wnętrzności | /ˈtʂɛ.vʲa/, /vnɛnˈtʂnɔɕ.t͡ɕi/ |
| 87 | neck | szyja, kark | /ˈʂɨ.ja/, /kark/ |
| 88 | back | plecy, grzbiet | /ˈplɛ.t͡sɨ/, /ɡʐbʲɛt/ |
| 89 | breast | pierś | /pʲɛrɕ/ |
| 90 | heart | serce | /ˈsɛr.t͡sɛ/ |
| 91 | liver | wątroba | /vɔnˈtrɔ.ba/ |
| 92 | to drink | pić | /pʲit͡ɕ/ |
| 93 | to eat | jeść | /jɛɕt͡ɕ/ |
| 94 | to bite | gryźć, kąsać | /ɡrɨɕt͡ɕ/, /ˈkɔ̃.sat͡ɕ/ |
| 95 | to suck | ssać | /ssat͡ɕ/ |
| 96 | to spit | pluć | /plut͡ɕ/ |
| 97 | to vomit | wymiotować, zwracać | /vɨ.mʲɔˈtɔ.vat͡ɕ/, /ˈzvra.t͡sat͡͡ɕ/ |
| 98 | to blow | dmuchać, dąć, wiać | /ˈdmu.xat͡ɕ/, /dɔɲt͡ɕ/, /vʲat͡͡ɕ/ |
| 99 | to breathe | dychać, oddychać | /ˈdɨ.xat͡ɕ/, /ɔdˈdɨ.xat͡ɕ/ |
| 100 | to laugh | śmiać | /ɕmʲat͡ɕ/ |
| 101 | to see | widzieć | /ˈvʲi.d͡ʑɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 102 | to hear | słyszeć | /ˈswɨ.ʂɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 103 | to know | wiedzieć, znać | /ˈvʲɛ.d͡ʑɛt͡ɕ/, /znat͡ɕ/ |
| 104 | to think | myśleć | /ˈmɨɕ.lɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 105 | to smell | czuć, niuchać, wąchać | /t͡ʂut͡ɕ/, /ˈɲu.xat͡ɕ/, /ˈvɔ̃.xat͡ɕ/ |
| 106 | to fear | bać, lękać | /bat͡ɕ/, /ˈlɛŋ.kat͡ɕ/ |
| 107 | to sleep | spać | /spat͡ɕ/ |
| 108 | to live | żyć | /ʐɨt͡ɕ/ |
| 109 | to die | mrzeć, umierać, zdychać | /mʐɛt͡ɕ/, /uˈmʲɛ.rat͡ɕ/, /ˈzdɨ.xat͡ɕ/ |
| 110 | to kill | uśmiercać, zabijać | /uɕˈmʲjɛr.t͡sat͡ɕ/, /zaˈbʲi.jat͡ɕ/ |
| 111 | to fight | walczyć | /ˈval.t͡ʂɨt͡ɕ/ |
| 112 | to hunt | polować | /pɔˈlɔ.vat͡ɕ/ |
| 113 | to hit | uderzać | /uˈdɛ.ʐat͡ɕ/ |
| 114 | to cut | ciąć, kroić, rzezać | /t͡ɕɔɲt͡ɕ/, /ˈkrɔ.it͡ɕ/, /ˈʐɛ.zat͡ɕ/ |
| 115 | to split | dzielić, rozdzielać, rozszczepiać | /ˈd͡ʑɛ.lʲit͡ɕ/, /rɔʑˈd͡ʑɛ.lat͡ɕ/, /rɔsˈʂt͡ʂɛ.pʲat͡ɕ/ |
| 116 | to stab | dźgać, kłuć, bóść | /d͡ʑɡat͡ɕ/, /kwut͡ɕ/, /buɕt͡ɕ/ |
| 117 | to scratch | drapać | /ˈdra.pat͡ɕ/ |
| 118 | to dig | kopać, ryć | /ˈkɔ.pat͡ɕ/, /rɨt͡ɕ/ |
| 119 | to swim | pływać | /ˈpwɨ.vat͡ɕ/ |
| 120 | to fly | latać, lecieć | /ˈla.tat͡ɕ/, /ˈlɛ.t͡ɕɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 121 | to walk | iść, chodzić | /iɕt͡ɕ/, /ˈxɔ.d͡ʑit͡ɕ/ |
| 122 | to come | przychodzić | /pʂɨˈxɔ.d͡ʑit͡ɕ/ |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | leżeć | /ˈlɛ.ʐɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 124 | to sit | siedzieć | /ˈɕɛ.d͡ʑɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 125 | to stand | stać | /stat͡ɕ/ |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | obracać | /ɔˈbra.t͡sat͡ɕ/ |
| 127 | to fall | padać, spadać, upadać | /ˈpa.dat͡ɕ/, /ˈspa.dat͡ɕ/, /uˈpa.dat͡ɕ/ |
| 128 | to give | dawać | /ˈda.vat͡ɕ/ |
| 129 | to hold | trzymać, dzierżyć | /ˈtʂɨ.mat͡ɕ/, /ˈd͡ʑɛr.ʐɨt͡ɕ/ |
| 130 | to squeeze | ściskać, wyżymać | /ˈɕt͡ɕi.skat͡ɕ/, /vɨˈʐɨ.mat͡ɕ/ |
| 131 | to rub | trzeć | /tʂɛt͡ɕ/ |
| 132 | to wash | myć, prać | /mɨt͡ɕ/, /prat͡ɕ/ |
| 133 | to wipe | wycierać | /vɨˈt͡ɕɛ.rat͡ɕ/ |
| 134 | to pull | ciągnąć, pociągać | /ˈt͡ɕɔŋ.ɡnɔɲt͡ɕ/, /pɔˈt͡ɕɔŋ.ɡat͡ɕ/ |
| 135 | to push | pchać, popychać | /pxat͡ɕ/, /pɔˈpɨ.xat͡͡ɕ/ |
| 136 | to throw | rzucać | /ˈʐu.t͡sat͡ɕ/ |
| 137 | to tie | wiązać | /ˈvʲɔ̃.zat͡ɕ/ |
| 138 | to sew | szyć | /ʂɨt͡ɕ/ |
| 139 | to count | liczyć, rachować | /ˈlʲi.t͡ʂɨt͡ɕ/, /raˈxɔ.vat͡ɕ/ |
| 140 | to say | mówić, rzec | /ˈmu.vʲit͡ɕ/, /ʐɛt͡s/ |
| 141 | to sing | śpiewać | /ˈɕpʲɛ.vat͡ɕ/ |
| 142 | to play | grać | /ɡrat͡ɕ/ |
| 143 | to float | pływać | /ˈpwɨ.vat͡ɕ/ |
| 144 | to flow | płynąć, ciec | /ˈpwɨ.nɔɲt͡ɕ/, /t͡ɕɛt͡s/ |
| 145 | to freeze | marznąć, zamarzać | /ˈmar.znɔɲt͡ɕ/, /zaˈmar.zat͡ɕ/ |
| 146 | to swell | nabrzmiewać, obrzękać, pęcznieć, puchnąć | /nabˈʐmʲjɛ.vat͡ɕ/, /ɔbˈʐɛŋ.kat͡ɕ/, /ˈpɛn.t͡ʂɲɛt͡ɕ/, /ˈpux.nɔɲt͡ɕ/ |
| 147 | sun | słońce | /ˈswɔɲ.t͡sɛ/ |
| 148 | moon | księżyc, miesiąc | /ˈkɕɛ̃.ʐɨt͡s/, /ˈmʲɛ.ɕɔnt͡s/ |
| 149 | star | gwiazda | /ˈɡvʲaz.da/ |
| 150 | water | woda | /ˈvɔ.da/ |
| 151 | rain | deszcz | /dɛʂt͡ʂ/ |
| 152 | river | rzeka | /ˈʐɛ.ka/ |
| 153 | lake | jezioro | /jɛˈʑɔ.rɔ/ |
| 154 | sea | morze | /ˈmɔ.ʐɛ/ |
| 155 | salt | sól | /sul/ |
| 156 | stone | kamień | /ˈka.mʲɛɲ/ |
| 157 | sand | piasek | /ˈpʲa.sɛk/ |
| 158 | dust | kurz, miał, pył | /kuʂ/, /mʲjaw/, /pɨw/ |
| 159 | earth | ziemia | /ˈʑɛ.mʲa/ |
| 160 | cloud | chmura, obłok | /ˈxmu.ra/, /ˈɔ.bwɔk/ |
| 161 | fog | mgła | /mɡwa/ |
| 162 | sky | niebo | /ˈɲɛ.bɔ/ |
| 163 | wind | wiatr | /vʲatr/ |
| 164 | snow | śnieg | /ɕɲɛk/ |
| 165 | ice | lód | /lut/ |
| 166 | smoke | dym | /dɨm/ |
| 167 | fire | ogień | /ˈɔ.ɡʲɛɲ/ |
| 168 | ash | popiół | /ˈpɔ.pʲuw/ |
| 169 | to burn | palić, gorzeć, płonąć | /ˈpa.lʲit͡ɕ/, /ˈɡɔ.ʐɛt͡ɕ/, /ˈpwɔ.nɔɲt͡ɕ/ |
| 170 | road | droga | /ˈdrɔ.ɡa/ |
| 171 | mountain | góra | /ˈɡu.ra/ |
| 172 | red | czerwony | /t͡ʂɛrˈvɔ.nɨ/ |
| 173 | green | zielony | /ʑɛˈlɔ.nɨ/ |
| 174 | yellow | żółty | /ˈʐuw.tɨ/ |
| 175 | white | biały | /ˈbʲa.wɨ/ |
| 176 | black | czarny | /ˈt͡ʂar.nɨ/ |
| 177 | night | noc | /nɔt͡s/ |
| 178 | day | dzień | /d͡ʑɛɲ/ |
| 179 | year | rok | /rɔk/ |
| 180 | warm | ciepły | /ˈt͡ɕɛ.pwɨ/ |
| 181 | cold | zimny, chłodny | /ˈʑim.nɨ/, /ˈxwɔd.nɨ/ |
| 182 | full | pełny | /ˈpɛw.nɨ/ |
| 183 | new | nowy | /ˈnɔ.vɨ/ |
| 184 | old | stary | /ˈsta.rɨ/ |
| 185 | good | dobry | /ˈdɔ.brɨ/ |
| 186 | bad | zły | /zwɨ/ |
| 187 | rotten | zgniły | /ˈzɡɲi.wɨ/ |
| 188 | dirty | brudny | /ˈbrud.nɨ/ |
| 189 | straight | prosty | /ˈprɔ.stɨ/ |
| 190 | round | krągły, okrągły | /ˈkrɔŋ.ɡwɨ/, /ɔˈkrɔŋ.ɡwɨ/ |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | ostry | /ˈɔ.strɨ/ |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | tępy | /ˈtɛm.pɨ/ |
| 193 | smooth | gładki | /ˈɡwat.kʲi/ |
| 194 | wet | mokry | /ˈmɔ.krɨ/ |
| 195 | dry | suchy | /ˈsu.xɨ/ |
| 196 | correct | poprawny, prawidłowy | /pɔˈprav.nɨ/, /pra.vʲiˈdwɔ.vɨ/ |
| 197 | near | bliski | /ˈblʲis.kʲi/ |
| 198 | far | daleki | /daˈlɛ.kʲi/ |
| 199 | right | prawy | /ˈpra.vɨ/ |
| 200 | left | lewy | /ˈlɛ.vɨ/ |
| 201 | at | przy, u, na | /pʂɨ/, /u/, /na/ |
| 202 | in | w, we | /v/, /vɛ/ |
| 203 | with | z, ze | /z/, /zɛ/ |
| 204 | and | i, oraz | /i/, /ˈɔ.ras/ |
| 205 | if | jeśli, jeżeli | /ˈjɛɕ.lʲi/, /jɛˈʐɛ.lʲi/ |
| 206 | because | bo, gdyż, ponieważ | /bɔ/, /ɡdɨʂ/, /pɔˈɲɛ.vaʂ/ |
| 207 | name | imię, miano | /ˈi.mʲɛ/, /ˈmʲa.nɔ/ |