Appendix:Chichewa verbal derivation

The lexical derivation of verbs in Chichewa follows certain patterns to create terms that may semantically seem more like inflected forms, but have their own independent inflections. The morphemes used to create these patterns are known as verbal extensions. Derivative verbs may frequently have special, unpredictable lexical meaning and are sometimes formed irregularly. Not all possible derived forms will exist, and sometimes multiple forms will exist for a single derivation, even with different meanings. Extensions may also be combined where logically possible. Some verbs even lack a base form and only exist as derivative verbs, especially for the nonproductive extensions. This is simply a guide to the regularly formed derivative verbs.

Tones are not treated here; for the most part, a verbal extension will have a high tone if the verb has a high tone and will have a low tone if the verb has a low tone, but there are many lexical exceptions, and these can vary greatly by speaker and dialect. The stative extension, however, usually puts a high tone on the final syllable regardless of the tone of the base verb.

Please refer to Chichewa tenses for background on verbal inflection.

Several verbal extensions contain vowels subject to vowel harmony, which will be written as <E> and <O> below. <E> can be analysed as being an underlying /e/, which harmonises to become /i/, and <O> as an underlying /o/, which harmonises to become /u/. This harmonisation to /i/ and /u/ occurs when the vowel most closely preceding the vowel in question is /a/, /i/, or /u/. When the preceding vowel is /e/ or /o/, or when there is no preceding vowel, they appear as /e/ and /o/ respectively.

Passive

The passive voice, which can only be used for transitive verbs, takes the suffix -Edwa.

Applicative

Sometimes also called the prepositional, the applicative voice has a variety of uses but always serves to promote an oblique argument to being the core argument. It may sometimes be benefactive, malefactive, instrumental, or locative in sense. This extension regularly takes the suffix -Era, but irregular derivations may exist, usually coexisting with the standard formation.

It can be applied more than once if an applicative form has been reinterpreted as the base form (accompanied by loss of the original base form from the language). A double applicative with the suffix -ErEra also exists with an intensive use, and can be considered a separate derived term.

Stative

The stative expresses that something has entered or may potentially (or has the ability to) enter into a state without an actor. It regularly takes the suffix -Eka. Verbs where the final consonant of the stem is l, principally the conversive verbs (see below) take a special stative form, replacing the final -la with -ka.

Causative

Causative forms are regularly formed with -Etsa for most verbs, and include both direct causatives, which involve physically forcing something to do the action, and indirect causatives, which involve making a situation that causes something to do the action. Intransitive verbs where the last consonant of the stem is k may distinguish these by forming direct causatives by replacing the final -ka with -tsa, and use the regularly formed causative as an indirect causative.

This form should not be confused with the intensive inflection, which is sometimes considered to be a derivation, and takes the same form, but puts a high tone on the suffix, as -Étsa. In writing (and quite often in speech), the intensive is substituted with its reduplicated form -ÉtsÉtsa to avoid confusion.

Reciprocal

Reciprocal forms do not undergo any vowel harmony, and simply take the suffix -ana.

Conversive

Conversive verbs make the meaning opposite from that of the base verb, and constitute a generally nonproductive extension, which takes the suffix -Ola.

Reduplicative

Reduplicative verbs usually indicate repetition over a short time scale, although they may have other uses, chiefly when the verb is not in a finite form. It is usually formed by reduplicating the entire verb stem.

Nouns

Verbs may also be derived to form nouns, with agent nouns replacing the final vowel with the suffix -i and going into class 1, and other derivational nouns replacing the final vowel with -o and going into a variety of classes, especially 3, 5, 6, and 7.

Nominal derivations can be made from any of the derived verbal forms listed above. Many nominal derivations may seem strange or irregular from a synchronic perspective, because they are in fact inherited from Proto-Bantu and may exhibit spirantisation or other unexpected sound changes.