User:Sumiaz/Maricopa

Based off of information from:

Gordon LM. (1980). Maricopa Morphology and Syntax. (Doctoral dissertation). University of California Los Angeles. (AAT 811127).

O'odham Piipaash Language Program. (2002). Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community.

Abbreviations

ASC associative; ASP realis aspect; DEM demonstrative; DES desiderative; DIST plural action/object; DS different subject; DU dual; EMP emphatic; EMPPRF emphatic perfective; HREV hearing evidential; INC incompletive; INF inferential; IR irrealis aspect; LOC locative/directional; NEG negative; NOM nominalizer; PL plural; PLOJ plural object; POSS possessive; PRF perfective; REF reflexive/reciprocal; REL relative clause subject; Q non-referential; QASP interrogative realis aspect; QAUG interrogative vowel augment; SEEV seeing evidential; SJ subject; SS same subject; ST something; UNSPEC unspecified; VAUG nominal vowel augment; VINC verbal incremental vowel.

Simple Sentences

• 'Iipaanysh sny'aka wikk. "The man helped a/the woman."

'iipaa-ny-sh sny'ak-a wik-k

man-DEM-SJ woman-Vaug help-ASP

• Mhaynysh qwaq tpuym. "The boy killed a deer."

mhay-ny-sh qwaq tpuy-m

boy-DEM-SJ deer kill-ASP

Intransitive Verbs

Intrasitive verbs take a prefix indicating the subject.

• The first-person takes the prefix '- . Some speakers omit this before consonant-initial verbs; in such speech, the first- and third-person forms are realized similarly. In these cases, the subject can be emphasized by using pronouns, as in the second example below (n.b. the verb remains unmarked in this case).
• The second-person takes the prefix m-.
  • Simple imperatives use the prefix k- instead of the usual second-person prefix.
• The third-person takes no prefix.

	hmii- "to be tall"	sper- "to be strong"	ashvar- "to sing"	iima- "to dance"
1SG	'hmiik	'sperm	'ashvark	'iimak
2SG	mhmiik	msperm	mashvark	miimak
3SG	hmiik	sperm	ashvark	iimak
IMP	khmiik	ksperm	kashvark	kiimak

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs are marked for both subject and object.

• Third-person objects require no additional marking, and these verbs only require the subject prefixes as specified above.
• Non-third-person object require the use of prefixes that indicate both the subject and object. There are five prefixes, two of which are identical: ny (1→2), 'nym (2→1), ny (3→1), m (3→2), 'nyk (2→1 IMP).

	wikk- "to help"	aahamm- "to hit"
1→2	nywikk "I helped you"	nyaahamm "I hit you"
1→3	'wikk "I helped him"	'aahamm "I hit him"
2→1	'nymwikk "You helped me"	'nymaahamm "You hit me"
2→1 IMP	'nykwikk "Help me!"	'nykaahamm "Hit me!"
2→3	mwikk "You helped him"	maahamm "You hit him"
2→3 IMP	kwiik "Help him!"	kaahamm "Hit him!"
3→1	nywikk "He helped me"	nyaahamm "He hit me"
3→2	mwikk "He helped you"	maahamm "He hit you"

The glottal stops in 'nym and 'nyk can be omitted, leading to their realization as nym and nyk; this occurs when the prefixes are themselves preceded by another prefix.

• Nyinymyuuk. "You saw us."

nyi-'nym-yuu-k

PLOJ-2/1-see-ASP

• Nyinykyuuk. "See us!"

nyi-'nyk-yuu-k

PLOJ-2/1.IMP-see-ASP

Dual and Plural

Specific verb forms exist for plural and many dual subjects.

• 'Iimak. "I danced."

'-iima-k

1-dance-ASP

• 'Iimashk. "We (two) danced."

'-iimash-k

1-dance.DL-ASP

• 'Ashuumashk. "We (pl) danced."

'-ashuumash-k

1-dance.PL-ASP

• Yuuk. "He saw it."

yuu-k

see-ASP

• Yoovk. "They (two) saw it."

yoov-k

see.DL-ASP

• Uuyoovk. "They (pl) saw it."

uuyoov-k

see.PL-ASP

Verbs are occasionally marked for plural objects. No construction exists for dual objects.

• Nyiqaask. "He called them."

nyi-qaas-k

PLOJ-call-ASP

• Nyiqaashk. "They (two) called them."

nyi-qaash-k

PLOJ-call.DL-ASP

• Nyiuuqaashk. "They (pl) called them."

nyi-uuqaash-k

PLOJ-call.PL-ASP

• Uulyeshm. "He broke it."

uulyesh-m

break-ASP

• Uushlyeshk. "He broke them."

uushlyesh-k

break.DIST-ASP

Verbal Suffixes

Simple Realis -k/-m

For simple declarative sentences, -k/-m indicates present ongoing action or past action. Realization of this suffix as -k or -m depends on the preceding environment.

• Aahamm. "He hit him."
• Aahamntk. "He hit him again."

aaham-nt-k

hit-too-ASP

• Aahamhotm. "He really hit him."

aaham-hot-m

hit-INT-ASP

• Hotk. "It is good."
• Hothaayk. "It is still good."

hot-haay-k

good-yet-ASP

• Hothotm. "It is very good."

hot-hot-m

good-INT-ASP

This suffix must be added to imperatives, but its meaning is effectively closer to desiderative irrealis as opposed to the usual indicative realis mood.

• Kyemk!. "Go!"

k-yem-k

IMP-go-ASP

• Ktpuym! "Kill it!"

k-tpuy-m

IMP-kill-ASP

Stative Realis -sh/-ksh

This suffix is used on verbs expressing a state of being in the past or present, or a completed action. -ksh is used on words that would take the suffix -k above and have a first-person subject; -sh is used elsewhere.

In many cases, -sh/-ksh is interchangeable with -k/-m. For example, both Mpis 'aahamsh. and Mpis 'aahamm. both mean "I just now hit him." Similarly, both Puysh. and Puyk. can mean "He died. / He is dead."

• Hwetsh. "It is red."

hwet-sh

red-PRF

• 'Nymyuush. "You saw me."

'nym-yuu-sh

2/1-see-PRF

• V'dawksh. "We (two) are here."

v-'-daw-ksh

DEM-1-sit.DL-PRF

• 'Yuuksh. "I saw it."

'-yuu-ksh

1-see-PRF

• 'Mhanksh. "I like it."

'-mhan-ksh

1-like-PRF

• 'Aashhamksh. "I beat him up."

'-aashham-ksh

1-hit.DIST-PRF

Simple Future -uum and -ha

• Mwikuum. "He will help you."

m-wik-uum

2-help-INC

• Kwesuum. "It is turning brown."

kwes-uum

brown-INC

• Nalyuum. "It is going to fall."

naly-uum

fall-INC

• Nyaayha. "I will give it to you."

ny-aay-ha

1/2-give-IR

• Uuv'awha. "It will rain."

uuv'aw-ha

rain-IR

• 'Weshha. "We (two) will go."

'-wesh-ha

1-go.DL-IR

Texts

Song from Story of Ná'ase

Herzog G. (1928). The Yuman musical style. J Am Folk, 41(160): 183-231.

"A Maricopa song from the Maricopa version of the story of Ná'asɛ, recorded from a Pima."

maat kwencam kwanytceyam henyhɛveyo hunaat
kwencaam kweyam kwenyhɛyen hǝnya yaamǝ
sa weelyımaat kwenaweyoo hatcenya haar
kumaat kwencaam kwenyan kwenyhɛyen

About the Maricopa

Between 1825 and 1839, Yuman-speaking peoples moved eastward along the Gila River from the Colorado due to attacks from the Mohave to the north and Yuma (Quechan) from the south. The four groups identified in literature are the Halchidhoma, Kohuana, Kaveltcadom, and Halyikwamai. The Halyikwamai are not documented beyond a mention in 1605, and possibly assimilated with the Kohuana. These groups were and are collectively called "Maricopa" by outsiders, and identify as "Maricopa" when interacting with outsiders; no single group among these is consistently considered a "Maricopa" culture to which others are affiliated.

• The Halchidhoma, following migration from the Colorado River, ended up congregating at Lehi, near south Scottsdale. Most accounts suggest that the Halchidhoma avoided settling with their Maricopa brethren on the Gila River to find a more sparsely populated area on the Salt River. Halchidhoma refer to themselves by this term (instead of Piipaash as do the Maricopa) but acknowledge that from an Anglo perspective, they are considered "Maricopa."

Kelly describes the "Maricopa" as a collective group encompassing the Halchidhoma, Kohuana, and Maricopa proper. The Kohuana are described to have disappeared from the cultural and historical record; although a handful of elderly Maricopas in the 1930's recalled having Kohuana grandparents, no record of their language exists. In contrast, Halchidhoma inhabitants of Lehi maintain a separate identity, despite instances of intermarriage with Gila River Maricopa.

Settlements

From Spier L, Yuman Tribes of the Gila River, 1933.

• Settlements were not traditionally compact. An 1850 record describes a single "settlement" stretching over 2 miles with 150-200 feet between houses. Defensive needs would eventually lead to more compact settlements.
• Some settlements were seasonal. Temporary residences were built nearer to the river and farmland during the summer, but more permanent villages were on higher ground to avoid spring and winter flooding.
• Traditionally the home of a deceased person would be burned and their family would relocate, sometimes less than a mile away.

	Name	Meaning	Notes
1	Cĭlyáai'kwĭtĭta'lĭc	Sand higher	Most western village, near sandhills on the north bank.
2	Tĭlpo'pĭlyámĭn	Scorched roadrunner	North bank, east of [1].
3	Axa'gua'lyá	Water showing	By a slough east of [2].
4	Kwuckĭ'tkwáxau'ĭc	Potsherds	North bank, east of [3].
5	Utcĭrŭau'ĭc	Coals scattered	South bank, near [2].
6	Xico'tokĭ'tŏv'au'ĭc	Mexican felled something	Further from the river than [5].
7	Ax'atwota'ʀá	Thick cottonwood	South bank, a mile upstream from [4].
8	Ax'akwaxo't	Good cottonwood	South of [8].
9	Ca'kŏv'áau'	Standing bone	Far south of [8], west of Maricopa Wells.
10	Kwatu'lxalyapŏ'mĭc	Lizard fell into water	North bank, east of [8].
11	Kusi'lydj	Rough dirt	North bank, a mile upstream from [10].
12	Iu'xnyĭvai'ĭs	Living with colds	South side, south of [10].
13	Xapi'vĭc	Cattails	South bank, southwest of [11].
14	Axta'sĭl	Reedy place	Far south of [13], east of Maricopa Wells.
15	Xulnyiniváau'ĭc	Cactus standing	South bank, few miles upstream from [13].
16	Mĭse'kwĭni'ly	Black muddy slough	Near present-day Sacate Village.

Toponyms

Name	Meaning	Location
Áxa'	River, Water	Gila River
Áxacĕ'nd	One river	Salt River
Xataikuve'ʀá	Hard canyon	Hassayampa River
Xa'kwĭtás	Red river	Colorado River
Xil	???	Area surrounding Sacate
Iic'ĭlyamu'c	Place of screwbean mesquite	Area near the Gila and Salt River junction
Áxasáĭ'lyá	Salty river	Santa Cruz River
I'iváau	Standing stick	Area east of Blackwater
Viva'vá	Solitary mountain	Pima Butte
Vialyxa'	Berdache mountain	Sierra Estella
Pipakwatkĭ'ʀá	Man lying on his back	Sierra Estrella
Vikwaxa's	Greasy mountain	Salt River Range
Xagávĭcáŭo'	Water divider	Outlying butte northwest of the Sierra Estrella
Mago'ʀokáxavĭ'g	Two heads	An eastern peak of the Sierra Estrella
Matáu'lgwĭsiŭe'rc	High dirt that is a shaman	Hill north of Pima Butte
Kukupu'ʀányiva'c	Kukupura's house	Painted Rock Mountains
Vi'iŭo'	Willow mountain	Mountains north of the Salt River
Vikatcákwi'nyá	Granary basket mountain	Mohawk Mountains
Axpĕ'	Metate	Antelope Hill

Foods

Three classes identified by JA Frisch (1968):

1. Nya _____ maa əvak ðuš. "I am eating _____." (maum "to eat")

   e.g. iiqwai "beef", čii "fish", marik "beans", xumat "squash", taðiič "corn", mawðilyič "bread"

2. Nya _____ čakau əvak ðuš. "I am eating _____." (čakaum "to eat something with water")

   e.g. kwiiðuiš "watermelon", aš "cactus", kišmiitawš "melons", qwesk'ulya "grapefruit", tomaač "tomato"

3. Nya _____ sii əvak ðuš. "I am drinking _____."

Food calendar

From L Spier.

Month	Gathered	Planted	Harvested	Hunted
January floods		corn
February trees bud		beans, peas, pumpkins
March rainy	cholla	watermelons
April rainy			cotton	mountain sheep, caterpillars
May rainy	berries		beans, peas
June	saguaro fruit, crucifixion thorn berries		corn, pumpkins, watermelon
July excessive heat	mesquite	pumpkins, watermelons, cotton, beans, peas, corn		rabbits, fish
August floods		opuntia fruit, ironwood nuts
October	amaranth		pumpkins	caterpillars
November			watermelon, corn	deer
December excessive cold	wild seeds

The Pai

The Pai languages are a group of closely related Yuman languages and are sometimes collectively called the Upland Yuman language. In reality the Pai languages are a spectrum of closely related dialects, but in practice those varieties in Arizona are split into the Yavapai, Hualapai, and Havasupai languages, based on political groupings.

• Social cohesion between bands was likely based on physical proximity, availability of resources, and kinship ties, more than simple group affiliation.
• Territorial boundaries of bands were flexible and band names tended towards describing the band's geographic location or land use patterns rather than a distinct territorial holding.
• Pai bands each had specific land use patterns and tended to spend summer in one area and winter in another. Summer was spent farming near springs and rivers and gathering wild plants, while winter was spent in hunting bands. Sizes may have ranged from a few dozen to hundreds.
• Regarding the concept of a chief:
  • There was no such official or ceremonial position and a local Pai leader was closer to a "headman."
  • They would have guided others in matters of food production, child rearing, behavior, and conflict resolution.
  • Selection of a local/camp or regional/band leader was an informal process based on an individual's bravery, wisdom, physical strength, and oratory skills.
• The Hualapai and Havasupai were only two of thirteen regional Pai bands allied against the Yavapai. The United States government established one reservation for the Havasupai, and another for the remaining twelve bands grouped under the Hualapai label.
• Bands:
  • Walapai Mountain
  • Clay Springs
  • Grass Springs
  • Milkweed Spring
  • Pine Springs
  • Peach Springs
  • Cerbat Mountain
  • Hackberry
  • Mahone Mountain
  • Red Rock
  • Big Sandy River
  • Juniper Mountain
  • Blue-Green Water

Hualapai orthography

Letter(s)		IPA	Example
A	a	/a/	áwa "son's child"
A:	a:	/aː/	a:w "grandchildren"
Æ	æ	/æ/	læqk "sore"
Æ:	æ:	/æː/	gæ:k "to shoot many things"
B	b	/b/	bos "cat"
Ch	ch	/t͡ʃʰ/	chud "winter"
D	d	/ɾ/	duyk "hot"
Đ	đ	/t̪/	đađ "thorn"
E	e	/e/	e' "yes"
E:	e:	/eː/	be:mk' "to be gone"
F	f	/f/	yafo'k "to be first"
G	g	/k/	ge "where"
H	h	/h/	ham "there"
I	i	/i/	ilwí "snake"
I:	i:	/iː/	ithi: "salt"
J	j	/t͡ʃ/	jiđk "mother"
K	k	/kʰ/	ko: "daughter's child"
L	l	/l/	lawk "mouth"
M	m	/m/	mi "or"
N	n	/n/	ni:s "spider"
Ng	ng	/ŋ/	-ng "(2nd-person suffix)"
Ny	ny	/ɲ/	nya "I"
O	o	/o/	ó'o "fire"
O:	o:	/oː/	vo:k "to walk"
P	p	/pʰ/	pi "metate"
Q	q	/q/	qa:q "crow"
S	s	/s/	siđk "one"
T	t	/tʰ/	tuyk "to disrobe"
Th	th	/θ/	thi:k "to drink"
Ŧ	ŧ	/t̪ʰ/	aŧá' "reed"
U	u	/u/	uwé' "mouse"
U:	u:	/uː/	hu: "head"
V	v	/β/	va "this"
W	w	/w/	wi: "cliff, canyon"
Y	y	/j/	yach "seed"
'	'	/ʔ/	'onk "to fish"

• v can be pronounced as /β/ or /v/.
• There are four diphthongs: aw, ay, ey, and uy.
• There are three levels of syllable stress:
  • Strongly stressed vowels are indicated by an acúte accent on short vowels, and are unmarked on long vowels.
  • Weakly stressed vowels are indicated by a gràve accent.
  • Unstressed vowels are unmarked.
• Unstressed short vowels may be pronounced as /ə/, /ʔ/, or dropped entirely, and spelling may reflect these changes.
  • thambó "bee" → thmbo
  • nuwa: "friend" → n'wa:
• In some environments, weakly stressed vowels may take on certain characteristics:
  • U or O, before wa
  • U or I, before wi
  • U or I, after j
  • O or I, after v and before ny
  • A or I, between a consonant and accented syllable
• The glottal stop and long vowel are interchangeable in some contexts and contrastive in others.
  • 'wa' and 'wa: both mean "house"
  • misi' "girl" versus misi: "girls"
• A word-initial glottal stop in speech may be preceded by duplicate vowel, with or without the stop.

  e.g. 'wa' "house" may be pronounced a'wá' or awá' .

  • /h/ is sometimes pronounced /ʔ/ or not at all.

Grammatical notes

• The suffixes -ch and -j are pronounced similarly:
  • -ch is used for the subject marker
  • -j is used for all others
• The suffix -k has two functions:
  • Same subject marker
  • Verb citation form

Common suffixes

• -Ø - accusative case (object)
  • Nyach gwègiviyám 'gowa:mwi. "I am driving a car."

  nya-ch gwègiviyám-Ø '-gowa:m-wi

• -CH - nominative case (subject)
  • 'Háđhach diye:kyi. "That dog is happy."

  'hađ-ha-ch diye:-k-yi

• -E - locative case (at, in, around)
  • Misì: qáchach nyud'u:jove da:ykyu. "The girls are playing here at the school."

  misi: qach-a-ch nyud'u:jo-v-e da:y-k-yu

• -(Y)É - vocative marker (in sight)
  • Hmany qaché! "Little children!"

  hmany qach-é

• -K - lative case (at, on, around, to, toward)
  • Nya đálach 'wa:vak va:kyuny. "My father came to this house."

  nya đala-ch 'wa:-va-k va:-k-yu-ny

• -L - illative case (in, into)
  • Hach gwègiviya:mal wá'kyu. "He is sitting in the car."

  ha-ch gwegiviya:m-a-l wa'-k-yu

• -M - instrumental-comitative case
  • Nyach nya lowa:vm 'hwák'yu. "I am with my wife."

  nya-ch nya lowa:-v-m '-hwak-'-yu

• -M - ablative case (from, away, out of, by, over)
  • Nya jíđach 'wa:vm jibámkyuny. "My mother went out of this house."

  nya jiđa-ch 'wa:-v-m jibam-k-yu-ny

• -(W)Ó - vocative marker (out of sight)
  • Nya jiđó! "My mother!"

  nya jiđa-ó

• -V(I) - reciprocal marker
  • Hme'hch misí'hm đigye:jvikyu. "The boy and girl are pushing each other."
  • hme'-h-ch misi'-h-m đigye:-j-vi-k-yu