User:Kwékwlos/Sound changes from Indo-European to Japonic
This page will show many intricate details on how Proto-Indo-European evolved into Proto-Japonic. Please note that all of this is very speculative, so be warned.
Proto-Indo-European to Early Proto-Indo-Iranian (3000 BCE to 2000 BCE) edit
- Fronting of palatovelar consonants into affricates (*ḱ > *ć, *ǵ > *ȷ́, *ǵʰ > *ȷ́ʰ).
- *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrós > *ćwitrás > *sira (“white”) 2.3 LL
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥néh₃ti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H-
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimós > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simo (“frost”) 2.3 LL
- Labiovelar consonants become plain velar consonants (*kʷ > *k, *gʷ > *g, *gʷʰ > *gʰ).
- Change of *l and *l̥ to *r and *r̥.
- Palatalization of s before *r/r̥ (also includes those from *l/*l̥), *u/*w, *k, and *i/*y as *š.
- *usmé- (“you”) > *ušmé- > *ušmá- > *ura 2.1 HH
- *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnós > *kr̥šnás > *kuro (“black”) 2.3 LL
- *ksuryós (“razor”) > *kšuryós > *kšuryás > *kšuríyas > *səri (“razor”) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH
- *néwistHos (“newest”) > *néwištHos > *náwištʰas > *nawíštas > *napíra > *mapya (“before, front”) 2.5 LF
- Bartholomae's law (voicing assimilation after aspirated consonants)
- *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-
- Palatalization of velars before *e, *ē, or *i (*k > *kʲ, *g > *gʲ, *gʷʰ > *gʲʰ)
- Brugmann's law (open-syllabic *o > *ō)
- *h₂ before a vowel and after a voiceless stop creates a voiceless aspirated consonant (*ph₂ > pʰ, *th₂ > *tʰ, *kh₂ > *kʰ)
- Merger of the three laryngeals *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ (after vowel coloring) as *H.
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥nóh₃ti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H-
- *h₁ésti (“to be”) > *Hésti > *Hásti > *ari (“to be”) 2.II L-
- *h₂énh₂ts (“duck”) > *HānHtíš > *Hantíš > *anti (“duck”) 2.x
- A laryngeal between two consonants vocalizes as *i, or disappears.
- *dʰugh₂tḗr (“daughter”) > *dʰugʲitā́ > *duyitā́ > *titə́ > *itə (“daughter, girl”) 2.x
- *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdᶻdʰás > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-
- Merger of *e, *o as *a, *ē and *ō as *ā.
Early Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Japonic-Nuristani (2000 BCE to 1500 BCE) edit
- Aspirated consonants lose their aspiration (*bʰ > *b, *dʰ > *d, *gʰ > *g, *gʲʰ > *gʲ, *ȷ́ʰ > *ȷ́, *pʰ > *p, *tʰ > *t, *kʰ > *k).
- *bʰéh₂os (“light”) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *porì > *poi (“fire”) 1.3 L(H)
- *gʰo (“emphatic particle”) > *gʰa > *ga > *ka (“emphatic particle”) 1.3 L
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *simo (“frost”) 2.3 LL
- *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, wide”) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥túš > *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.3 LL
- Initial *r or *Hr becomes *ř.
- Loss of the laryngeal *H between two vowels.
- Reduction of syllable-initial *an as *n̥.
Proto-Japonic-Nuristani to Pre-Proto-Japonic (1500 BCE to 1000 BCE) edit
- The syllabic consonants *m̥, *n̥, *r̥ become *am, *un, *ur syllable-finally; else they are retained with a tendency of *m̥ to merge with *n̥ as *n̥.
- *gʷíh₃wontm̥ (“living”) > *gʲíHwantm̥ > *gʲiHwántam > *kiyora (“beautiful, clear”) 3.5b/3.6b LLH/LHH
- *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnā́mun > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)
- *sm̥kŕ̥t (“at once”) > *sm̥kŕ̥t > *sn̥kúrt > *sunku (“at once”) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF
- Single *ā becomes *o, except when unaccented, is followed by *u, or in word-final position, where it becomes *a instead.
- *dʰwórom (“door”) > *dʰwā́ram > *dwóram > *twóra > *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H)
- *ǵónu (“knee”) > *ȷ́ā́nu > *upa-ȷ́ánu > *pisa, *pinsa (“knee”) 2.1 HH
- *h₁éh₁tmō (“soul, spirit”) > *HáHtmā > *tmā́ > *tmá > *tama (“soul, spirit”) 2.3 LL
- *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnámun > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)
- *mḗms (“flesh, meat”) > *mā́ms > *móms > *mómri > *mui (“flesh, meat”) 1.1 H(H)
- *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a LH
- *wa becomes *wu when not word-initial or word-final.
- Secondary palatovelars lose their palatalization (*kʲ > *k, *gʲ > *g).
- Simplification of *tˢt and *dᶻd as *tt, *dd
- *bʰidtós (“split”) > *bʰitˢtás > *bittás > *pittá > *ita (“board, plank”) 2.4b LH
- *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *samddás > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *skinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- Loss of *s before a voiceless stop (*sp > *p, *st > *t, *sk > *k)
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *kinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- *sph₁eh₁yós (“prosperous”) > *spʰaHyás > *paHyás > *paya (“early, quick”) 2.3 LL
- *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”) > *skʲaHyáH > *kaHikáH > *kayiká > *kankai (“shade, shadow”) 2.5a LF
- *stéh₂t (“to stand”) > *stáHt > *táHti > *tatu (“to stand”) 2.II L-
- Voiced consonants are devoiced (*b > *p, *d > *t, *g > *k, *ȷ́ > *ć).
- *bʰidtós (“split”) > *bʰitˢtás > *pittás > *ita (“board, plank”) 2.4b LH
- *dʰuh₂mós (“smoke”) > *dʰuHmás > *dúHmriH > *túHmriH > *tiri (“dust”) 2.1 HH
- *gʰo (“emphatic particle”) > *gʰa > *ga > *ka (“emphatic particle”) 1.3 L
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *ćimás > *simo (“frost”) 2.3 LL
- Loss of *ř.
- *kš becomes *ć word-initially or *ćć word-medially before high vowels.
- *dʰǵʰḿ̥h₂s (“earth”) > *ȷ́ʰžʰḿ̥Hs > *kšimHáH > *ćimHáH > *sima (“island, territory”) 2.3 LL
- *ksuryós (“razor”) > *kšuryás > *kšuríyas > *ćuríyas > *səri (“razor”) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH
- *uksḗn (“bull, ox”) > *ukšā́ > *ukšín > *uććín > *usi (“bull, cow, ox”) 2.1 HH
- Phonemic split of *a into *a and *ë under complex conditions.
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ćimë́s > *simo (“frost”) 2.3 LL
- *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári > *Hn̥të́ri > *n̥túri > *utui (“inside, within”) 2.1 HH
- *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnás > *kr̥šnë́s > *kuro (“black”) 2.3 LL
- *kʷr̥tóm (“action, deed, work”) > *kr̥tám > *kr̥të́m > *kətə (“action, deed, work”) 2.3 LL
Pre-Proto-Japonic to Early Proto-Japonic (1000 BCE to 700 BCE) edit
- Loss of final consonants.
- Loss of laryngeals, lengthening the preceding vowel and causing glottalization of *w as *wH.
- Simplification of geminates and consonant clusters. Generally, the first consonant is deleted, except for the ones listed below. This is believed to have led to the split correspondence in Ryukyuan between B and C of tone class 2.4/2.5 words, as words containing geminates or consonant clusters belong to class B (2.4b/2.5b).
- *ćr > *ć, but it rhotacized a following nasal.
- *ćš > *ćć > *ć.
- *ćt > *ćć > *ć.
- *h₂mērǵtóy (“in purity”) > *Hmārćtáy > *maććá > *maćá > *masa (“in truth”) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF
- *kr > *k, but *k...kr > *k...r.
- *kš > *kk > *k, except word-initially.
- *kt > *kk > *k, but *kšt > *tt > *t.
- *Hregtós (“red”) > *Hraktás > *akká > *aka (“red”) 2.5 LF
- *n̥bʰeh₂gstós (“uneaten”) > *n̥bʰakštás > *n̥pattá > *uweta (“hungry”) 3.x
- *mr > *m or *r, but can also become *nr even within the same word (see below).
- *ntr > *nr > *n or *r.
- *pr > *p.
- *sk, *šk > *ss, *šš > *s, *š.
- *Hwr̥ksḱéti (“to tear”) > *Hwr̥škʲáti > *wr̥ššáti > *worai (“to break”) 2.II L-
- *tr > *r in all positions except word-initially, where it becomes *t. Note that dialectal reflexes also give *ć > *s or even *ç > *y.
- *drewníh₂ (“trough”) > *drawníH > *tawní > *tani (“valley”) 2.3 LL
- *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrás > *ćwirá > *sira (“white”) 2.3 LL
- *temHésrih₂ (“darkness”) > *tamHásriH > *tramásiH > *çamë́sī > *yamúri > *yamui (“darkness”) 2.3 LL
- *úd + *tréseti (“to fear”) > *utˢtrásati > *ućë́sati > *əsərai (“to fear”) 3.II L-
- *ts > *t. This occurred before *ć > *c (pronounced *ts).
- *ć becomes *c.
- Rhotacization of *s and *š as *r, except if there is a sequence of two such consonants.
- *dʰreh₂ǵséh₂ (“grape, vine”) > *dʰraHȷ́žʰáH > *draHsáH > *të̄sā́ > *të̄rā́ > *tura (“vine”) 2.3 LL
- *pl̥síh₂ (“rock”) > *pr̥šíH > *pr̥rī́ > *piri (“rock”) 2.1 HH
- *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a LH
- Rhotacization of unaccented *t as *r, except word-initially or when protected by a syllabic nasal.
- *kš > *kus word-initially.
- *dʰgʷʰiyéti (“to decline, perish”) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay > *kusayári > *kusari (“to rot”) 3.II L-
Early Proto-Japonic to Middle Proto-Japonic (700 BCE to 300 BCE) edit
- *ay > *i when word-initial or following *sw (also when following *t if unaccented), otherwise *a. *aw > *a, which causes class 2.4 and 2.5 nouns to have class B.
- Arisaka's law (spreading of remaining *ë to adjacent vowels except *i). *n̥ and *r̥ = *ën and *ër spread *ë to *u only.
- Syllabic consonants vocalize or receive an epenthetic high vowel (which feeds into Arisaka's law if *u) except for *n̥ word-initially. *r̥t > *r only after *p. The sequence *rn (likely a retroflex nasal) that results from it is secondary; old *rn having become *n during the simplification.
- *wH (from *Hw and *wH) > *mp.
- *gʷriHwéh₂ (“neck”) > *griHwáH > *gr̥HwíyaH > *kuwHíyā > *kumpíya > *kumpi (“neck”) 2.1 HH
- Long vowels shorten, except for *ū, which becomes a short close central vowel (written as *ū) that becomes *i or *u, probably the earliest difference between Japanese and Ryukyuan.
- *ë is raised to u, near *m, *n, and sometimes *r.
- *dʰéreti (“to hold”) > *dʰárati > *túrari > *toru (“to hold”) 2.II L-
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *cinúri > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H-
- *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *kʲakrám > *kúru > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *kinúri > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- Remaining *ë becomes *ə.
- *w is lost after consonants. *iwa > *iya and following that, word-final *iya > *i.
- *o is raised to *u.
- *u lowers to *o (different from the old *o) near *m and *n.
- *rn becomes *r
- *c becomes *s.
- *aya contracts to *a and shifts the accent to the right, unless it is syllable-final and is accented on the suffix, where it is retained.
- *dʰgʷʰiyéti (“to decline, perish”) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay > *kusayári > *kusari (“to rot”) 3.II L-
- *sph₁eh₁yós (“prosperous”) > *spʰaHyás > *paya (“early, quick”) 2.3 LL
- *tewh₂yós (“strong”) > *tawHyás > *tawyás > *taya (“strength”) 2.3/2.4b LL/LH
- *awa > *uwa.
- Fortition of *w as *p after *a or *i and before *i.
- The sequence *í...ə becomes *é...e
- Syllable-final *ya after consonants becomes *e (> Old Japanese e2).
- Accented word-final *nt becomes *t in some cases, probably dialectal.
Middle Proto-Japonic to Late Proto-Japonic (300 BCE to 300 CE) edit
- *n̥m > *n̥w.
- *n̥ vocalizes into a high vowel.
- Lenition of unaccented *p as *w or *w̃.
- *p is lost (probably via lenition first) if the following vowel is unaccented and is followed by a syllable containing *p or *t.
- Assimilation of non-initial *n...r as *r...r.
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *siróri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H-
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *kiróri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- Loss of unaccented *r, with an epenthetic *p sometimes inserted. This creates a new set of diphthongs.
- Metaphony of unaccented *a to *e or *i near labials and when followed by *i, but can also be from syncope and later epenthesis.
- Loss of unaccented initial *i or *u, which may trigger compensatory high pitch in the case for *u.
- *n > *m near single *o.
- *wi and unaccented *ti > *e.
- Syncope of unaccented syllables containing *m, *n, *r, and *y, which may cause a 2.5 accent pattern associated with nasalization.
- *dʰwórom (“door”) > *dʰwā́ram > *túra > *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H)
- *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *nã > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)
- *nepōtkós (“grandson”) > *napātkás > *nuw̃ãká > *nw̃ãká > *mmanka (“grandchild”) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH
- *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”) > *skʲaHyáH > *kayiká > *kãnkai > *kankai (“shade, shadow”) 2.5a LF
- *swóydos (“sweat”) > *swáydas > *āswáydas > *asíra > *asya (“sweat”) 2.5b LF
- *w̃ > *m and denasalization of vowels (but may cause nasal spreading).