User:Kwékwlos/Wiktionary:About Proto-Nuristani

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Proto-Nuristani is the reconstructed ancestor of all the Nuristani languages, a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Due to the paucity of available linguistic data concerning the modern-day Nuristani languages and their dialects, extensive influence from neighboring Indo-Aryan languages, and the relatively recent period of attestation, starting from the 19th century, there are a lot of uncertainties about the reconstruction of Proto-Nuristani. Its descendants include the Ashkun, Kamkata-vari, Prasuni, Tregami, Waigali, and Zemiaki languages, spoken mainly in Afghanistan and small parts of Chitral District, Pakistan.

Nevertheless, within the Nuristani family, it is possible to identify some sound correspondences that enable us to preliminarily reconstruct Proto-Nuristani and uncover its relationship to other Indo-Iranian branches, namely Indo-Aryan and Iranian. However, the individual subgroupings of Nuristani are quite complicated. The following sections below demonstrate the sound correspondences between Proto-Nuristani and its descendant languages.

Sources are extracted from Richard Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon, Ralph Lilley Turner's A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages, and Harry Burnett Lumsden's The Mission to Kandahar with Appendices.

Phylogeny

The descendants of Proto-Nuristani include:

Phylogeny

Proto-Nuristani Kamkata-viri Western Kata-vari Ktivi (main; unlisted) Kulam (unlisted) Ramgal (unlisted) Northeastern Kata-vari Bashgali (main; unlisted) Chitrali (unlisted) Southeastern Kata-vari Kamviri (main; unlisted) Mumviri (unlisted) Prasuni Dewa (unlisted) Kshtoki (unlisted) Pashki (unlisted) Pronj (main; unlisted) Shtive (unlisted) Zumu (unlisted) † Proto-Southern Nuristani (unlisted) Ashkun Badzaigal (unlisted) Kolatan (unlisted) Masegal (unlisted) Sanu (main; unlisted) Tregami Devoz (unlisted) Gambir (main; unlisted) Katar (unlisted) Waigali Ameshdesh (unlisted) Chimi (unlisted) Nisheigram (main; unlisted) Zemiaki (unlisted) Zhonchigal (unlisted)

Pitch accent

Proto-Nuristani is believed to have a distinctive pitch accent inherited from Proto-Indo-Iranian. In all Nuristani languages, except for Prasuni, an accent shift to the penultimate syllable occurred, eliminating most traces of the old accent. Subsequently, vowel apocope occurred, resulting in a fixed stress at the final syllable. Nevertheless, pitch accent can be speculatively determined based on these criteria:

1. The reflex of *ā in Ashkun is either ā or a. It is likely that the long vowel reflex comes from an accented *ā, while the short vowel reflex comes from an unaccented *ā, as in pā́r (“leaf”) < *pā́ra and břá (“brother”) < *brātá < *brātā́. The change of unaccented *ā > *a must have occurred before the shift to penultimate accent in Proto-Southern Nuristani. Word-finally however, *ā was shortened to *a in common Nuristani regardless of accent, as evidenced by its syncope.

2. Preservation of a v reflex deriving from intervocalic *k. Normally, *k is lenited to zero, including the diminutive suffix *-ka/*-kā which were usually accented. However, certain words preserve a labiovelar reflex (with occasional reduction to vowel length in Kamviri), in one case (*scāyikā (“shade, shadow”)) including the diminutive suffix, which was probably fossilized by the time of Proto-Nuristani.

Based on these, it is possible to reconstruct two accent categories for monosyllabic nouns (H, L), at least two accent categories for disyllabic nouns (HL, LH) and three accent categories for trisyllabic nouns (HLL, LHL, LLH). The existence of tone categories LF and LLF, deriving from some cases of Proto-Indo-Iranian LH and LLH, are highly speculative, but the Shtiwe dialect of Prasuni reflects the putative categories as HL and LHL, as in zíma (“snow”) < *jimà < *ȷ́ʰimás. Spontaneous nasalization in some Nuristani reflexes may also hint to the existence of the LL and LLL tone categories, as in Kamkata-viri ćawẽ́ (“shade”) < *scāyikā, as well as accentless words in Prasuni (an alternative explanation may be that the Prasuni words are accented, but are not marked in transcription).

Common vowel changes from Proto-Nuristani

The vowel developments in modern Nuristani languages generally follow a pattern, though some divergences exist. Final vowels are generally lost, but most exceptions exist in Prasuni.

• Proto-Nuristani *a is retained as a when it began a word, except for Waigali where it becomes ë. Syllable-initially following a consonant, it becomes o (Southern Nuristani) or u (Kamkata-vari) when stressed (following the penultimate stress rule). Otherwise, it becomes ë. Due to metaphony, some instances of *a end up as ä (in Waigali) or e (in Kamkata-vari) before an old *i.

• Proto-Nuristani *ã, reflecting the Proto-Indo-Iranian syllabic nasal, merges with *a, though the following consonant is not subject to lenition.

• Proto-Nuristani *ā becomes a when it begins a word. Otherwise, it becomes o or u when stressed (following the penultimate stress rule) in Kamkata-vari. In Ashkun, it becomes ā or a, likely conditioned by the old pitch accent (and not the penultimate stress rule). In Waigali, it becomes a, but in some cases the reflex is ë instead.

• Proto-Nuristani *e (probably a long vowel much like Sanskrit e) is generally retained except for Ashkun, where it becomes a (word-initially) or ë (in other positions).

• Proto-Nuristani *i is generally retained. It probably lowers to *e before nasals.

• Proto-Nuristani *ī probably merged with *i.

• Proto-Nuristani *o (probably a long vowel much like Sanskrit o) is retained in Ashkun as o, and raises to *u in Kamkata-vari and Waigali.

• Proto-Nuristani *r̥, reflecting the Proto-Indo-Iranian syllabic rhotic, was likely retained in Proto-Southern Nuristani (Ashkun íć versus Waigali oć (“bear”)) on account of the differing vowel reflexes. However, in all languages, it vocalizes into a high vowel, but it causes a following dental consonant to become retroflex.

• Proto-Nuristani *u is retained in Ashkun and Tregami. Elsewhere, it is fronted to ü.

• Proto-Nuristani *ū probably merged with *u.

Single consonant changes

• Proto-Nuristani *p
  • Ashkun p (initial), v (intervocalic) (pṍć (“five”) < *pánča, nëvā́ (“grandson”) < *napāká)
  • Kamviri p (initial), v (intervocalic) (púč (“five”) < *pánča, navó (“grandson”) < *napāká)
  • Kata-vari p (initial), v (intervocalic) (púč (“five”) < *pánča, nëvók (“grandson”) < *napākká)
  • Prasuni v (vúču (“five”) < *pánča)
  • Tregami p (initial), v (intervocalic) (pṍč (“five”) < *pánča, nëvǻ (“grandson”) < *napāká)
  • Waigali p (initial), v (intervocalic) (pṍč (“five”) < *pánča, nëvã (“grandson”) < *napāká)

• Proto-Nuristani *t
  • Ashkun t (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (tú (“thou”) < *tū́, ẓó (“intestine”) < *řotá)
  • Kamviri t (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (tǘ (“thou”) < *tū́, řú (“intestine”) < *řotá)
  • Kata-vari t (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (tiú (“thou”) < *tū́, řú (“intestine”) < *řotá)
  • Prasuni y (initial), y/∅ (intervocalic) (üyú (“thou”) < *tū́, vú (“intestine”) < *upařotá)
  • Tregami t (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (tú (“thou”) < *tū́)
  • Waigali t (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (tü (“thou”) < *tū́, vřu (“intestine”) < *řotá)

• Proto-Nuristani *k
  • Ashkun k (initial), ć/č (before i), v (intervocalic under accent), ∅ (intervocalic) (këndë́ (“tree”) < *kandakā́, sáv (“branch”) < *cākā́, ćë́s (“markhor hair”) < *kéća, yón (“liver”) < *yakaná)
  • Kamviri k (initial), v/ː (intervocalic under accent), ∅ (intervocalic) (kanó (“tree”) < *kandakā́, ćawẽ́ (“shade”) < *scāyikā, ćṓ (“branch”) < *cākā́, yaňí (“liver”) < *yakaná)
  • Kata-vari k (initial), v (intervocalic under accent), ∅ (intervocalic) (kënë́ (“tree”) < *kandakā́, ćóv (“branch”) < *cākā́, yaí (“liver”) < *yakaná)
  • Prasuni y (initial), y/∅ (intervocalic) (yu (“basket”) < *káwā)
  • Tregami k (initial), v (intervocalic under accent), ∅ (intervocalic) (kä́r (“ear”) < *kā́ra, yó (“one”) < *eká)
  • Waigali k (initial), v (intervocalic under accent), ∅ (intervocalic) (kënë (“twig”) < *kandakā́, ćav (“branch”) < *cākā́, ev (“one”) < *eká)

• Proto-Nuristani *b
  • Ashkun b (initial), v (intervocalic) (bás (“steam”) < *bāsá, vëdú (“both”) < *ubā́ dū́)
  • Kamviri b (initial), v (intervocalic) (bós (“steam”) < *bāsá, védü (“both”) < *ubā́ dū́)
  • Kata-vari b (initial), v (intervocalic) (bós (“steam”) < *bāsá, avdiú (“both”) < *ubā́ dū́)
  • Prasuni v (vëtlë́ (“board”) < *bittalá)
  • Tregami b (initial), v (intervocalic) (bás (“wind”) < *bāsá, ënó (“ghee”) < *ānnabr̥tá)
  • Waigali b (initial), v (intervocalic) (bas (“wind”) < *bāsá, avërë (“brought”) < *ābr̥taká)

• Proto-Nuristani *d
  • Ashkun d (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (dú (“two”) < *dū́, vaćá (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Kamviri d (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (dǘ (“two”) < *dū́, vaćó (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Kata-vari d (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (diú (“two”) < *dū́, vaćó (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Prasuni l (vëzë́lë (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Tregami d (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (dú (“two”) < *dū́, źó (“heart”) < *jr̥dí)
  • Waigali d (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (dü (“two”) < *dū́, oćä (“shoe”) < *upascáda)

• Proto-Nuristani *g
  • Ashkun g (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (gṓm (“wheat”) < *godū́ma, přāmá < *prāgamaká)
  • Kamviri g (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (gúm (“wheat”) < *godū́ma, áćë- (“to come”) < *ā́gascati)
  • Kata-vari g (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (gúm (“wheat”) < *godū́ma, áće- (“to come”) < *ā́gascati)
  • Prasuni y (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (ulyúm (“wheat”) < *godū́ma, ać- (“to come”) < *ā́gascati)
  • Tregami g (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (gúm (“wheat”) < *godū́ma, é (“I”) < *ā́na ga)
  • Waigali g (initial), ∅ (intervocalic) (gúm (“wheat”) < *godū́ma, ii (“he, she, it”) < *etá ga)

• Proto-Nuristani *s
  • Ashkun s, š (before i) (sṓt (“seven”) < *sattá)
  • Kamviri s (sút (“seven”) < *sattá)
  • Kata-vari s (sút (“seven”) < *sattá)
  • Prasuni s (së́të (“seven”) < *sattá)
  • Tregami s (sút (“seven”) < *sattá)
  • Waigali s (sot (“seven”) < *sattá)

• Proto-Nuristani *š
  • Ashkun s, š (before i) (-s (“2nd person singular verbal marker”) < *-ši)
  • Kamviri š (-š (“2nd person singular verbal marker”) < *-ši)
  • Kata-vari š (-š (“2nd person singular verbal marker”) < *-ši)
  • Prasuni š (-š (“2nd person singular verbal marker”) < *-ši)
  • Tregami š (-š (“2nd person singular verbal marker”) < *-ši)
  • Waigali š (-š (“2nd person singular verbal marker”) < *-ši)

• Proto-Nuristani *c
  • Ashkun s, š (before i) (sáu (“branch”) < *cākā́, šōňë́ (“sand”) < *cyunaká)
  • Kamviri ć (ćṓ (“branch”) < *cākā́)
  • Kata-vari ć (ćóv (“branch”) < *cākā́)
  • Prasuni z, ž (before i) (zõ (“dung”) < *cakā́na, žiṭe (“dung”) < *cakŕ̥ta)
  • Tregami ć (kẽć (“hair”) < *kénca)
  • Waigali ć (ćav (“branch”) < *cākā́)

• Proto-Nuristani *j
  • Ashkun z, ž (before i) (zamā́ (“son-in-law”) < *jāmā́tā, žím (“snow”) < *jimà)
  • Kamviri ź (źím (“snow”) < *jimà)
  • Kata-vari z (zím (“snow”) < *jimà)
  • Prasuni z (zíma (“snow”) < *jimà)
  • Tregami ź (źím (“snow”) < *jimà)
  • Waigali z (zim (“snow”) < *jimà)

• Proto-Nuristani *č
  • Ashkun ć, č (before i) (ẓóć (“light”) < *řóča, čā́ (“wall”) < *čyā́wa)
  • Kamviri č (řúć (“light”) < *řóča)
  • Kata-vari č (řúć (“light”) < *řóča)
  • Prasuni ž/j (žiči- (“to write”) < *čitrā́peti, yürjük (“light”) < *řočaká)
  • Tregami č (čatá (“four”) < *čatwā́ra)
  • Waigali č (vřuč (“dawn”) < *řóča)

• Proto-Nuristani *ǰ
  • Ashkun z, ž (before i) (zā́- (“to give birth”) < *ǰā̃́yeti, ží (“sinew”) < *ǰíyā)
  • Kamviri j (jaňë́- (“to kill”) < *ǰanáti)
  • Kata-vari j (jařë́- (“to kill”) < *ǰanáti)
  • Prasuni ž (žnü- (“to kill”) < *ǰanáti)
  • Tregami j (jṍṭ (“leopard”) < *ǰántā)
  • Waigali j (jũt (“leopard”) < *ǰántā)

• Proto-Nuristani *m
  • Ashkun m (amá (“house”) < *amakā́)
  • Kamviri m (amó (“house”) < *amakā́)
  • Kata-vari m (amú (“house”) < *amakā́)
  • Prasuni m (umú (“home”) < *amakā́)
  • Tregami m (ëmá (“house”) < *amakā́)
  • Waigali m (ëma (“house”) < *amakā́)

• Proto-Nuristani *n
  • Ashkun n (initial), ň/∅ with nasalization (intervocalic) (nā́m (“name”) < *nā́ma, vieňíe- (“to see”) < *wenáti)
  • Kamviri n (initial), ň/∅ with nasalization (intervocalic) (nóm (“name”) < *nā́ma, jaňë́- (“to kill”) < *ǰanáti)
  • Kata-vari n (initial), ř/∅ (intervocalic) (núm (“name”) < *nā́ma, jařë́- (“to kill”) < *ǰanáti)
  • Prasuni n (žnü- (“to kill”) < *ǰanáti)
  • Tregami n (initial), ň/∅ with nasalization (intervocalic) (nás (“nose”) < *nā́sa, jṍṭ (“leopard”) < *ǰántā)
  • Waigali n (initial), ň/∅ with nasalization (intervocalic) (nam (“name”) < *nā́ma, jũt (“leopard”) < *ǰántā)

• Proto-Nuristani *r
  • Ashkun r, ∅ (sometimes after a long vowel) (ćā́r (“way”) < *čā́ra, dá (“mountain”) < *dārā́)
  • Kamviri r, ∅ (sometimes after a long vowel) (čór (“way”) < *čā́ra, dó (“mountain”) < *dārā́)
  • Kata-vari r, ∅ (sometimes after a long vowel) (čór (“way”) < *čā́ra, dó (“mountain”) < *dārā́)
  • Prasuni r (súru (“lake”) < *sára)
  • Tregami r, ∅ (sometimes after a long vowel) (kä́r (“ear”) < *kā́ra, sä̃́ (“sun”) < *sórī)
  • Waigali r, ∅ (sometimes after a long vowel) (čar (“way”) < *čā́ra, da (“mountain”) < *dārā́)

• Proto-Nuristani *ř
  • Ashkun ẓ (initial), ṛ (intervocalic) (ẓó (“intestine”) < *řotá, oṛíṅ (“elbow”) < *upařaniká)
  • Kamviri ř (řú (“intestine”) < *řotá)
  • Kata-vari ř (řú (“intestine”) < *řotá)
  • Prasuni ẓ, ž (ẓul (“metal”) < *řudí, žeṭ (“night”) < *řā́trī)
  • Tregami ḍẓ (ḍẓátr (“night”) < *řā́trī)
  • Waigali vř (vřuč (“dawn”) < *řóča)

• Proto-Nuristani *l
  • Ashkun l (bitalë́ (“kindling”) < *bittalaká)
  • Kamviri l (bitë́lë (“board”) < *bittalaká)
  • Kata-vari l (bëtiél (“board”) < *bittalá)
  • Prasuni l (vëtlë́ (“board”) < *bittalá)
  • Tregami l (lúi (“blood”) < *lówita)
  • Waigali l (bitëlë (“board”) < *bittalaká)

• Proto-Nuristani *y
  • Ashkun y (yó (“barley”) < *yúwa)
  • Kamviri y (yaňí (“liver”) < *yakaná)
  • Kata-vari y (yaí (“liver”) < *yakaná)
  • Prasuni y (oyo- (“to eat”) < *yuwáti)
  • Tregami ž (žó (“barley”) < *yúwa)
  • Waigali y (yok (“liver”) < *yakká)

• Proto-Nuristani *w
  • Ashkun v (vā́s (“day”) < *wā́sa)
  • Kamviri v (vós (“day”) < *wā́sa)
  • Kata-vari v (vós (“day”) < *wā́sa)
  • Prasuni v (vës (“day”) < *wā́sa)
  • Tregami v (vás (“day”) < *wā́sa)
  • Waigali v (vas (“day”) < *wā́sa)

Consonant cluster changes

Sequences of double consonants are preserved in the Nuristani languages as single consonants.

• Proto-Nuristani *pr
  • Ashkun př (přé- (“to give”) < *pradádāti)
  • Kamviri př (přé- (“to give”) < *pradádāti)
  • Kata-vari př (přé- (“to give”) < *pradádāti)
  • Prasuni p (-pli- (“to give”) < *pradádāti)
  • Tregami pr (prúšt (“bed”) < *prúwašta)
  • Waigali pr (prë- (“to give”) < *pradádāti)

• Proto-Nuristani *tr
  • Ashkun tr (trë́ (“three”) < *tré)
  • Kamviri tr (tré (“three”) < *tré)
  • Kata-vari tr (tré (“three”) < *tré)
  • Prasuni ṭ, č/ćš (before i) (uṭús (“avalanche”) < *trása, ćši (“three”) < *tré)
  • Tregami tr (tré (“three”) < *tré)
  • Waigali tr (tre (“three”) < *tré)

• Proto-Nuristani *kr
  • Ashkun kř (křā́mie- (“to thresh”) < *krā́mati)
  • Kamviri kř (křamë́- (“to thresh”) < *krā́mati)
  • Kata-vari kř (křamřé- (“to thresh”) < *krā́mati)
  • Prasuni k (kimë- (“to thresh”) < *krā́mati)
  • Tregami kr (-k (“2nd person singular verbal marker”) *-kr̥ta)
  • Waigali kr (krẽć (“discarded millet ear”) < *krenćá)

• Proto-Nuristani *br
  • Ashkun bř (břá (“brother”) < *brātā́)
  • Kamviri bř (břó (“brother”) < *brātā́)
  • Kata-vari bř (břó (“brother”) < *brātā́)
  • Prasuni v (vaya (“brother”) < *brātā́)
  • Tregami br (brá (“brother”) < *brātā́)
  • Waigali br (bra (“brother”) < *brātā́)

• Proto-Nuristani *dr
  • Ashkun dr (drā́s (“grape”) < *drā́sā)
  • Kamviri dr (drós (“grape”) < *drā́sā)
  • Kata-vari dr (drós (“grape”) < *drā́sā)
  • Prasuni r (rásik (“grape”) < *drā́sā)
  • Tregami dr (drás (“grape”) < *drā́sā)
  • Waigali dr (dras (“grape”) < *drā́sā)

• Proto-Nuristani *gr
  • Ashkun gř (gřám (“village”) < *grāmá)
  • Kamviri gř (gřóm (“village”) < *grāmá)
  • Kata-vari gř (gřúm (“village”) < *grāmá)
  • Prasuni g (gëm (“community”) < *grāmá)
  • Tregami gr
  • Waigali gr (gre- (“to bring”) < *grabéti)

• Proto-Nuristani *sc
  • Ashkun ć (vaćá (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Kamviri ć (vaćó (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Kata-vari ć (vaćó (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Prasuni ć (initial), z/ź (intervocalic) (vućá (“shade”) < *upa-scāyā́, vëzë́lë (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Tregami ć (vaćä́ (“shoe”) < *upascáda)
  • Waigali ć (oćä (“shoe”) < *upascáda)

• Proto-Nuristani *sr, šr
  • Ashkun š (pëší (“nephew”) < *spasríya)
  • Kamviri ṣ (ṣapṣí (“nephew”) < *spasríya)
  • Kata-vari ṣ (ṣëpṣí (“nephew”) < *spasríya)
  • Prasuni ṣ (ṣúpṣi (“nephew”) < *spasríya)
  • Tregami ṣ (ṣéi (“head”) < *šrāyiká)
  • Waigali ṣ (pëṣi (“nephew”) < *spasríya)

• Proto-Nuristani *st
  • Ashkun st (přóšt (“bed”) < *prúwašta)
  • Kamviri št (přǘšt (“bed”) < *prúwašta)
  • Kata-vari št (přúšt (“bed”) < *prúwašta)
  • Prasuni st/št (pušt (“bed”) < *prúwašta)
  • Tregami št (prúšt (“bed”) < *prúwašta)
  • Waigali št (initial), st (intervocalic) (ištor (“ceiling”) < *stára, prüst (“bed”) < *prúwašta)

• Proto-Nuristani *cr
  • Ashkun str (istrū́ (“tear”) < *acrūká)
  • Kamviri c̣ (ac̣ǘ (“tear”) < *acrūká)
  • Kata-vari c̣ (ac̣íú (“tear”) < *acrūká)
  • Prasuni j (initial), č (intervocalic) (jí (“head”) < *crā́ya, üčǘ (“tear”) < *acrūká)
  • Tregami c̣ (üčǘ (“tear”) < *acrūká)
  • Waigali c̣ (üc̣ẽ (“back”) < *ūcróni)

• Proto-Nuristani *mb
  • Ashkun mb (istrū́ (“tear”) < *acrūká)
  • Kamviri m (źamṓ (“drool”) < *jambuká)
  • Kata-vari m (zamúv (“drool”) < *jambuká)
  • Prasuni b (üšköb (“bridge”) < *skambá)
  • Tregami m
  • Waigali m (kumňe (“water pot”) < *kumbaná)

• Proto-Nuristani *nd
  • Ashkun nd (kṓnie- (“to laugh”) < *kándati)
  • Kamviri n (kanë́- (“to laugh”) < *kándati)
  • Kata-vari n (këné- (“to laugh”) < *kándati)
  • Prasuni d (údo-sik (“spring”) < *undá)
  • Tregami n
  • Waigali n (kënë (“twig”) < *kandaká)

• Proto-Nuristani *ng
  • Ashkun ṅ (uṅtrë́ (“arm”) < *ungatraká)
  • Kamviri ṅ (aṅó (“fire”) < *angārá)
  • Kata-vari ṅ (aṅó (“fire”) < *angārá)
  • Prasuni g (ügǘ (“finger”) < *angūří)
  • Tregami ṅ (ëṅó (“fire”) < *angārá)
  • Waigali ṅ (ëṅustë (“ring”) < *angustaká)

• Proto-Nuristani *nč
  • Ashkun ć (with nasalization of preceding vowel) (pṍć (“five”) < *pánča)
  • Kamviri č (púč (“five”) < *pánča)
  • Kata-vari č (púč (“five”) < *pánča)
  • Prasuni č (vúču (“five”) < *pánča)
  • Tregami č (with nasalization of preceding vowel) (pṍč (“five”) < *pánča)
  • Waigali č (with nasalization of preceding vowel) (pũč (“five”) < *pánča)

• Proto-Nuristani *nk
  • Ashkun k (with nasalization of preceding vowel) (uṅtrë́ (“arm”) < *ungatraká)
  • Kamviri k (kakúň (“widow”) < *kānkuní)
  • Kata-vari k (kakúř (“widow”) < *kānkuní)
  • Prasuni k
  • Tregami k (with nasalization of preceding vowel)
  • Waigali k (with nasalization of preceding vowel)

• Proto-Nuristani *nt
  • Ashkun t (with nasalization of preceding vowel) (dṍt (“tooth”) < *dánta)
  • Kamviri t (dút (“tooth”) < *dánta)
  • Kata-vari t (dút (“tooth”) < *dánta)
  • Prasuni t (látë-m (“tooth”) < *dánta)
  • Tregami t (with nasalization of preceding vowel) (dṹt (“tooth”) < *dánta)
  • Waigali t (with nasalization of preceding vowel) (dũt (“tooth”) < *dánta)

Grammar, morphology, and syntax

Proto-Nuristani was an SOV (subject-object-verb) language, typical of almost all Indo-Iranian languages. All Nuristani languages except for Prasuni, which has nominative-accusative alignment, show split ergativity. Grammatical gender, contrasting only masculine and feminine genders, was present in Proto-Nuristani and is retained only in Kamkata-vari. Relative clauses employed the participial gap strategy as attested in Kamkata-vari and Waigali, an innovation found nowhere else in Indo-Iranian due to the loss of relative pronouns.

The Indo-Iranian case system was already reduced in Proto-Nuristani due to final consonant loss, alongside the loss of the dual number. Proto-Nuristani thematized all athematic verbs by adding a vowel (usually *a) after the root. The past tense suffix in Proto-Nuristani is derived from the old Indo-Iranian past participle in *-ta-, though some archaic past participles in *-na- have survived alongside their meaning.