Appendix:Proto-Amerind reconstructions

The Proto-Amerind reconstructions below are from Greenberg & Ruhlen (2007).

The reconstructions are provided for historical reference, since Amerind is generally not considered to be a valid macrofamily by most linguists.

Greenberg & Ruhlen (2007)

English gloss	Proto-Amerind
above	*itai; *apa-k; *araka; *q’aɬ; *pin
adjectival/participial formant	*ki
agave	*mal
agentive	*-re ~ *-ri; *ta
agouti	*kuri
all	*q’ac
allative	*-k
along(side)	*no
already	*na
angry	*ili
ant	*tai; *cakon; *pic’u; *kaci; *tapu; *bohu
anteater	*bìgo
anus	*kuti
appear	*laq’w
arm	*poq; *kwana; *noq’ ~ *neq’; *kwala
armadillo	*pema
arrive	*wila
arrow	*m˜a
ashes	*pok ~ *pul
ask	*maca; *tempa
aunt	*pan
axe	*supa
back	*iki; *mak; *puna
bad	*kalen; *čaka; *q’ac
bark (v.)	*wok
bathe	*puk
be	*upi; *(a)t’a; *ʔi; *ka
bear (v.)	*ʔa
beard	*p’oti; *tuk
bee	*pana; *mumu
behind	*(a)pi; *ini
belly	*kate; *pali ~ *pani; *mat; *to; *si
bend/knee/elbow/bow (n.)	*poq’-os ~ *c’e-puq’
big	*pala
bird	*c’ik(c’ik) ~ *c’uk(c’uk); *p’išk’u
bite	*kua; *tak
bitter	*pe(s)q’ ~ *p’o(s)q’; *cah; *kai
black	*pol; *k’ara; *t’uki; *teteu; *tuni ~ *tuli
blood	*pile; *menu; *ʔita; *pe; *kwa
blow (v.)	*puci ~ *puku
blue/green	*sikwa
body	*p’i; *ime
body part suffix	-an
boil (v.)	*tloqw
bone	*pak; *t’ui; *cak; *p’i; *χaq; *ʔunku
bow/arrow	*ɬoq’w
break (v.)	*k’at’i
breast	*k’amin; *niono; *pin; *tu
breathe	*hiqw
bring	*tuk
broad	*patl’
burn	*t’eq’a ~ *t’oq’a; *pek’ ~ *pok’; *ka ~ *ko; *moɬok
butterfly	*palpal; *penpen; *sape ~ *sapipe ~ *sasipe; *liklik
buy	*teu
buzzard	*hus ~ *huš ~ *ʔus ~ *ʔuš; *wačuli ~ *wayuri
call	*wanik; *pai
capybara	*keču
carry	*apa; *ko(n); *nek
causative	*-(a)t(u); *ma; *cV ~ *Vc
cedar	*caq’u
cheek	*pok
chest	*t’ik ~ *t’uk
chew	*qac
chicken	*cik
child	*(a)nu; *mako; *pan; *ʔali; *tluk; *pam; *man; *k’ati
chin	*yuh
chipmunk	*wasila
chop	*qak
close (v.)	*q’apa; *kui; *pan
cloud	*tal(u); *pa(n)k; *pot
clover	*pot
cold	*canik; *t’ak’; *kaca; *to; *kui; *cia
come	*nani; *ta; *tak; *hau; *pi
cook	*maki; *q’waɬ ~ *q’wal; *koko
copulate	*huca
corn	*cikcik
count	*oši
cover (v.)	*tek’u; *sape
crow/raven	*q’aq’(aq)
cry (v.)	*wuni; *ʔipu
cut	*q’wat; *cikw; *t’an; *q’ec ~ *q’ac; *t’ek
dance	*taluk
dark	*t’umak
day	*q’wai
deer	*sula; *taʔ; *mana
desiderative	*-he
die	*maki; *tumpa; *t’iq’; *kam; *yak; *nek; *wanu
dig	*(o)kua; *tik; *(w)ali
diminutive	*-ihsa; *-mai
dirty	*c’i
do	*ʔaχ
dog	*(a)kuan; *kucu; *c’iʔ ~ *c’uʔ; *ari; *dia; *nuq; *puku; *waš
dove	*kowi
dry	*ana; *caqi
dual	*si
duck	*q’atq’at
durative	*la
durative/punctual	*-a/*-i
dust	*pur; *pe
dwell	*ʔu
eagle	*ʔasa
ear	*kamon; *kana; *pa(n); *naka; *tine; *tiki; *ali; *isa; *mal; *ka
earth	*ila; *tampi; *ama(k) ~ *ama(t); *nan(u); *pata; *kake; *pile
eat	*pa ~ *pe; *k’uli ~ *k’uri; *(h)ama; *k’ama
egg	*na; *tompa; *paki; *c’ikw
elbow	*q’ucu; *kuk
elder	*ʔa; *-ko
excrement	*pa; *(i)ta(h)
eye	*(i)to(ʔ); *tene ~ *tele; *k’an; *tuki ~ *tuku; *q’waɬ; *kap; *kad; *asa ~ *aša; *ere; *nak; *hin; *yan; *oi
fall	*tik
fan	*helu
far	*pali; *ya
fat	*kui; *wila
fear	*kul; *pak
feather	*p’atl; *pi
female	*-win; *iš
fill (up)	*tumpa
finger	*tik; *k’o
fingernail	*cikil
finish	*hawyi
fire	*(ʔ)oti; *kuti ~ *kuči; *ma; *ʔisu; *ʔaha; *paye; *c’ik; *guka; *pet; *sila(k); *yak
fire/burn	*apali
fish	*kwama; *q’ac’; *(n)amakw; *waki; *ʔici; *k’al ~ *kal; *yapa
flat	*t’a
flea	*mak’in ~ *makin; *p’ak’i; *k’wit’
flower	*tuktuk; *p’aq’
fly (v.)	*ta; *yaka
fly (n.)	*k’ampa; *mulu ~ *puru
foot	*po ~ *pa ~ *pe; *asiʔ
forehead	*pe; *koa
four	*maka
fox	*ʔaw; *pura
frog	*kwaq’at; *busi; *t’en; *wara; *buru; *xana
fruit	*teka
full	*pak; *pan ~ *p’ir; *t’am; *winik
future	*-ta
gather	*yokw
give	*cils; *yak; *ʔukw
go	*min ~ *man; *tem; *yak ~ *yaʔ; *q’oy; *ʔaka; *wan; *poro; *out caq
good	*ici; *c’ump(a); *malin; *k’anik ~ *k’ulik; *poy; *ʔayu; *tač’a; *k’apa; *meca; *keme; *q’waʔ
goose	*laq’laq’
gourd	*puru
grandfather	*pica; *ikan
grass	*pu; *qaca
grease (n.)	*ʔisa
green	*kuli ~ *kuri
guts	*epoku; *kul
hair	*cum; *toni
hair/feather	*ali
hammock	*buh
hand	*ʔani; *atu; *(w-)ʔiš ~ *(w-)ʔasi; *kuc ~ *kic; *tana ~ *teni; *pito; *saka; *q’ap ~ *qap; *ʔaqa; *tap; *hento; *m’apa; *pel
hand/give/measure	*ma-n ~ *ma-k ~ *ma-r
hard	*kwele
hate	*pul
hawk	*sokal
hawk (sparrow)	*liq’liq’
he/she	*ʔi ~ *iʔ; *ti ~ *ta
head	*puta; *t’aq; *sako
heart	*cuk’u
heron	*wara
heaven	*ema
hill	*ton
hit	*tiq’w; *tok; *pak; *maq’a
hole	*c’imak; *mu; *tolo
horn	*kwan
hortative	*pa ~ *pe ~ *pi
hot	*k’ec ~ *k’ac
house	*toh; *ka
husband	*ino
I	*na(ʔ); *ʔi; *pi ~ *pa; *ka ~ *ki; *ta; *ma
imperative	*ʔi
...-in-law	*-kwa
interrogative	*ta; *ki ~ *ka ~ *ku; *min ~ *men ~ *man; *xa; *na; *pi; *wa; *sin
iterative	*-te
jaguar	*huko; *yak
kill	*pa ~ *pi
knee	*kati; *moko
knife	*pika
know	*kom; *yok; *kwak; *ma(k) ~ *ma(n); *naka; *rik; *t’akw
large	*ta(k); *mek’at’i; *po; *mo…n
laugh	*kal(i); *ʔaci
lazy	*hilak
leaf	*ere; *pane; *imi
left (hand)	*q(w)ec’
leg	*ta(k); *caka
lick	*laq’w
lie down	*yaqw
lightning	*wilep’
lip	*yepi
live (v.)	*ha(n); *ya
liver	*paci; *kala
lizard	*uli; *šiko
locative	*-(a)m(a); *-na- ~ *-ni; *pa ~ *pe ~ *pi
locative/instrumental	*-te ~ *-ta ~ *-ti
long	*ali; *kule
lose	*wono
louse	*ti; *tina; *ik’wa
lungs	*pos; *huhu
macaw	*maha
make	*taʔ; *yu; *kua
man	*ači; *kak; *ipa; *tama; *loko; *koto; *mano
many	*ali; *til ~ *tan; *moni; *pu; *pote ~ *peti; *lok’
masculine/feminine	*t/*s
masculine/feminine/neutral	*i/*u/*a
meat	*lau; *nena; *mati; *ati; *wak’i; *tin; *nak
medicine	*t’oyo
moon	*p’ot; *tamp; *nunta; *q’ala
monkey	*kuki; *cawi
morning	*qaya
mosquito	*puro; *č’oyu
mother	*tati
mother/aunt	*nana
mother/older female relative	*aya
mountain	*way
mouse	*kus; *maqa; *p’osa; *c’ok; *pik
mouth	*yaq’; *kua; *kala; *čik
name (v.)	*dlaq; *ya
narrow	*cian
navel	*tompa
near	*kama
neck	*k’u; *aru; *gwaka; *pak
negative	*kua
new	*at’e; *c’um; *peɬa
night	*yama; *mok; *pasi ~ *sepi; *kači
nominal suffix	*-na
nose	*nus ~ *nis; *asi; *ɬin; *sunik ~ *sinik; *yak
now	*ere; *ne
old	*ano; *kayo
older female	*wis
one	*(ne-)k’we(t); *tama; *kela ~ *kana; *sem; *saka; *pa; *as; *če˜ne; *hu; *man; *owin
open	*k’une; *pai
otter	*keta
owl	*tuku(l); *pulpul
pain	*(n)ana
parrot	*cece; *kara ~ *keri; *kaka; *tuwi
past	*-na; *-ite; *-k
peel	*tl’uq’w; *pas
penis	*ko
people	*ʔoni
person	*kaya; *mikw; *win
pitch (resin)	*salak ~ *sakal
plant	*qaywa
play (v.)	*loʔu
plural	*ina ~ *ana; *ma ~ *me; *aki; *le
potato	*qaw; *kali
present/continuative	*-is
present/durative	*-i
quail	*takaka
rat	*kaba
raw	*čaw
reciprocal	*-ki ~ *-ka
red	*misk
reed	*ʔakta
reflexive	*ti
rib	*q’aci; *ca
right	*pet
river	*pala; *tia
road	*nama; *p’en; *niyani
rock	*ʔo; *tem
root	*pal; *tap
rope	*c’ak; *tit
rotton	*pet’o
rough	*č’aksi
round	*k’ir; *molok
rub	*yul
run	*kano; *taka
saliva	*tupa; *tokw; *ole
salmon	*c’wan
salt	*k’ači; *si; *tam
sand	*yeʔwa
say	*ti; *qwaɬ; *koʔe; *ʔai; *ʔona; *nik
scratch	*χwala; *c’iχ
see	*new; *win; *pi; *ma ~ *mi ~ *mu; *ʔica; *ʔuka; *ila; *wat
seed	*mak; *icu
seek	*peno
sew	*pik; *k’wači
shadow	*mani
she	*i-gau
shell (v.)	*ʔiksu
shine	*lemp
shoot	*t’uya
shoulder	*tala; *peko
sibling	*kani
side	*čan
sing	*siya
sit	*ču; *ni; *ʔuwa; *t’aq; *iku
skin	*toke; *pakti; *čom; *k’wati; *pai; *pici; *pol
skunk	*šika
sky	*hewlak; *ʔapal
slap	*tlaq; *lapa
sleep	*cima; *ʔitaw ~ *it’aw; *ʔino; *kanak; *ka ~ *k’o
small	*t’uk ~ *tik; *kunek; *k’uti
smell	*matik’; *k’ukwi
smoke	*c’eka
snake	*kan; *tampa; *aq’wi; *kamuc; *nato; *pan; *iyala; *mete; *wek; *olaba; *oro; *pusu; *k’aʔ; *yupi
sneeze	*ʔasu-ka
snot	*caʔm
snow	*yu; *pon
sociative	*mane
son/child/daughter	*t’ina/*t’ana/*t’una
sour	*caqw
speak	*weh
spider	*ʔako; *madi; *q’al
spring (season)	*t’ica; *tem
spruce	*c’im
squash (n.)	*q’ame
squeeze	*pic’ ~ *p’ic
stab	*c’aqw
stand	*tep; *nuka; *up taʔ
star	*(a)sin; *meca
stay (in a place)	*man
steal	*mera; *k’wawa
stick (in)	*ɬaqw
stomach	*to; *wak
stone	*k’atla; *cak; *tak; *got; *k’wak’w; *mak; *pake
string	*nu
strong	*pale
suck	*c’uqw
sun	*ali ~ *ala; *kwal; *pali; *t’ak’w; *c’ul; *kati; *hasi; *maka; *pan; *p’it ~ *put’; *hini; *kamo; *tin; *hada; *haya; *pe; *naqw; *pak
swallow (v.)	*maliq’a
sweep	*pit
swell	*pos
tail	*k’wati; *tuk; *baɬ; *ʔala; *sin; *sikal
talk	*mal
tapir	*maci; *awa; *kutu; *kema; *nake
testicle	*talo
that	*mo; *pa; *ya; *ʔa ~ *ha; *sa
there	*ʔai
thick	*q’wic
thigh	*kasi
think	*ali
this	*ki ~ *ko; *ni ~ *na; *wi; *fei; *ga
thorn	*k’ica ~ *kasi
thou	*mi ~ *ma; *a; *ka; *ti; *hi; *pi ~ *pa ~ *wa
thread (v.)	*kuyo
three	*(ne-)qwaɬas; *sapin
throat	*nuk’
throw	*aka; *t’amp ~ *tamp
tie (v.)	*tak’
tobacco	*hici
tongue	*kapi; *nene; *paɬ; *lat; *tukw; *nem
tooth	*it’io; *nan; *kan; *kita; *ʔik; *yok’
toucan	*cuk
tree	*man ~ *min; *qan ~ *qal; *temba; *hapa; *neki; *ʔaxa; *hama; *ɬok’ ~ *ɬoq’; *kul
tree (oak)	*teq’ ~ *taq’; *k’win
tremble	*tukw
turkey	*kutu
turn	*maya
turtle	*hola; *kuli
two	*(ne-)pale; *ʔaku; *wi ~ *wa; *tuk; *pit; *mok; *men; *kom; *pok; *sak; *take; *tap; *yama
uncle	*kaka
uncle (maternal)	*taq; *nakwe
uncle (paternal)	*maq
up	*yaq; *k’ìs
urine	*seki; *wisi
vagina	*put; *ʔaci
vulva	*naq’w; *ʔene
walk	*hiwet
want	*k’un
warm	*yo; *cuqal
wash	*c’ik’wa; *huka
water/drink	*aq’wa/*uq’wa
water	*man; *poi; *re; *si; *kwati; *p’ak; *na; *ʔali; *pan; *tuna; *c’i; *kam ~ *kom; *to ~ *do; *kona; *xi; *hobi
we inclusive	*ʔis ~ *seʔ; *ma
we-two inclusive	*ki ~ *ka
west	*bo
white	*pala; *pek; *tora; *posa
wide	*ʔaɬaq
wildcat	*tunku
win	*tl’akw
wind (n.)	*kiq; *kwala; *ʔitewa; *ʔaši; *suk’w
wing	*kampi
winter	*tete
wish (v.)	*mena; *yana
with	*ma
wolf	*tepa
woman	*tom; *kuna; *sun; *ita
wood	*iye; *ake
woodpecker	*bak
work (v.)	*pi; *nina
worm	*kwec; *nokin; *piru
year	*ʔame; *wata
yellow	*tampa; *ci
yes	*ʔehe
yesterday	*kan; *weɬ
younger brother/older brother	*p’oy/*p’oyp’oy