Wiktionary

User:Alexlin01/NH cognates

< User:Alexlin01

Subpages edit

Lexical reconstructions edit

North Halmaheran edit

*'ʔu.fis edit

(intransitive) to flow
  • West Makian: ufi, yufi
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ʔu.his
    • Galela: uhi
    • Loloda: uisi
    • Tobelo: uihi
    • Tabaru: uisi (should probably/might actually be 'uisi)
    • Sahu: 'uisi
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔu.hi

*'bu.L(o/a)ŋ edit

(stative) white
May not be reconstructible to PNH; West Makian may be an early borrowing from PTT
  • West Makian: bulo (found in Teljeur's lists)
    • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'bu.Loŋ

*'cu.p1ir edit

nail (fingernail, toenail)

☆ All Nuclear NH terms contain a prefixes of the form golo-, gulu-, gili-, or gi-. If the PNNH form of the root was something like *gol or *gul, then varying combinations of cluster simplification, epenthesis, and vowel assimilation could account for the reflexes seen. The Paḏisua term (with devoicing and final m and ʔ) is highly irregular if it belongs to this proto-form. The Ternate form with initial k- may be due to contamination with several other terms with initial kolo- (and hardly any with initial golo-).

*'fa.te edit

tree
  • West Makian: fete
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ha.te
    • Sahu: ate
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ha.te

*'fi.na(r) edit

(stative) thin

*'fi.tom edit

kitchen
  • West Makian: fito
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'hi.tom
    • Sahu: itomo
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'hi.to

*'ga.si edit

salt
All of the Nuclear NH terms (excluding Tidore) could have been borrowed from Ternate.
From Austronesian (*qasiN) with *N- prefixation.
  • Old West Makian:
    • West Makian: ase
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera

*gu.'bu.al edit

termite
  • Old West Makian: *gu.'bu.al → *u.'bu.al (reconstruction due to Voorhoeve, stress mine)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *gu.'bu.al
    • Galela: gubuala (improper retention of final consonant/echo vowel)
    • Ternate: bua (irregular loss of initial gu)
    • Tidore: gabua (Kamus Tidore), gubua (cited by Voorhoeve)

*'i.gon edit

coconut
  • West Makian: iono, yono (“areca nut”) (connections between areca nuts and coconuts appear to be well-supported areally)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'i.gon

*'i.fok edit

excrement
  • ?West Makian: fu
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'i.hok
    • Galela: iho
    • Loloda: ihoko
    • Tobelo: ioko
    • ?Sahu: kio'o (initial k is unexpected)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'i.ho

*'ka.fi ~ *'a.fi edit

skin
  • Old West Makian: *kafi (with ultimate stress?) (Voorhoeve)
    • West Makian: fi
  • Galela: kahi
  • Modole: 'ai
  • Tabaru: kai
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'a.hi

*'ma.ri(ŋ) edit

stone

*'m(o/a).daŋ edit

mouth
  • West Makian: mada
  • Galela: moda (Baarda lists it as a taboo substitute for the usual uru, so it may be borrowed. I could not find a Loloda cognate)
  • Sahu: madanga
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.da (Allen 2000) ~ *'mo.da

*mo.'tek edit

(transitive) to follow
  • Old West Makian: *'mo.te (or from PTT)
  • Galela: mote
  • Loloda: moteke
  • Tobelo: moteke
  • Sahu: mete'e
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'mo.te
    • Ternate: mote
    • Tidore: mote (“to obey”)

*'(ŋ)o.fat edit

(stative) wide

*'ŋo.lot edit

sea
  • West Makian: wolot (or reborrowed from South Halmaheran)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ŋo.lot

*'ɲi.far edit

kenari
  • ?West Makian: ifa
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'ɲi.har
    • Galela: niha
    • Loloda: miara
    • Tobelo: niara (njiara in Hueting)
    • Tabaru: nyiara (may actually by niara, influenced by the i and possibly by Ternate)
    • Sahu: nyiala
    • Ternate: nyiha

*'()o.muk edit

(stative) ripe (of fruit specifically?)
  • ?West Makian: mu, mo
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.muk

*'o.p1un ~ *'o.p1uŋ edit

bee, wasp
  • Old West Makian: *opin (Voorhoeve)
    • West Makian: pin
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.p1un
    • Galela: hopu (with irregular /h/ here, or with irregular loss in Ternate)
    • Tobelo: ohungu (H), ofungu (B)
    • Pagu: owun
    • Modole: owungu
    • Sahu: wounu (with metathesis from *owunu?)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.fu

*'o.tir edit

boat, canoe

*'()o.Za edit

moon
  • Old West Makian: *'o.da
    • West Makian: odo
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'o.Za
    • Galela: ngoosa (with prefix ngo-)
    • Proto-Sahuic: *'ŋo.ra (with N- prefixation)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'o.ra

*'p1a.it or *'p2a.it edit

(intransitive?) to dig
  • Old West Makian: *pait
    • West Makian: pai
    • ?→ East Makian: pait
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'p1a.it
    • Galela: puai (labialization of p1?)
    • Loloda: waiti
  • Sahu: paiti
  • Tobelo: haiti
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fa.i

☆ Sahu points to p2, but the rest point to p1.

*'p1o.la edit

house
  • West Makian: pala
  • Galela: pola (“ricebarn”)
  • Loloda: wola
  • Tabaru: woa
  • Proto-Paguic: *'wo.la
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'wo.la
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.la

*'p1o.li edit

(transitive) to buy
From Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *poli, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *bəli.
  • West Makian: poli
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'po.li
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'fo.li
      • Ternate: fodi (with unexpected l → d)
      • Tidore: foli

*'p1o.ŋan ~ *'bo.ŋan edit

forest
  • West Makian: pangan (“undergrowth, grass, forest”)
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'p1o.ŋan
    • Galela: ponga
    • Loloda: wongana (Baarda's Loloda Grammar suggests wongana (but I know no Dutch). Wada lists hongana which would likely be a loan)
  • Tobelo: hongana, Tobelo: fongana (in Taylor)
  • Tabaru: bongana
  • Sahu: bangana
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ŋa

*'p2o.ŋo(n/l) edit

(stative) deaf
From Austronesian. Compare Cebuano bungol.

*'p1u.tu edit

night
  • West Makian: putuiwu (“when”, literally “how many nights”) (de Clercq argues that the North Halmaherans already had a night-based system of reckoning - as opposed to a day-based one as in English)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'p1utu

*'sa.fuk edit

(stative) warm
  • West Makian: safo (with vowel lowering triggered by a?)
  • Ternate: sahu
  • Sahu: sau'u

*'so.fat edit

palm, sole
  • West Makian: safat
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'so.hat
    • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'so.hat
    • Sahu: sata (might actually be saata or may have shortened from that)
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'sa.ha
    • ?→ East Makian: sahat (“slap”)

*'so.fot edit

pig
  • West Makian: sufu (as sufú)
  • PNNH: *'so.hot
    • Proto-Sahuic: *'so.hot
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.ho

*'so.mam edit

crocodile

*'so.p1ok edit

fruit
  • West Makian: sopo
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'so.p1ok
  • Pagu: sowok
  • Modole: howo'o - but in Ellen's Woordenlijst (pg. 109), the third entry of o bole has the misspelled "ha'oo", presumably for "hao'o".
  • Tobelo: hohoko
  • Sahu: sowo'o
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'so.fo

*'ta.duk edit

and not *taḋu
horn (of an animal)

*'to.Zik edit

*'tu.p1am edit

sky
  • West Makian: tupam (but! Tagono village has "tipam")
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'tu.fa

*'wa.Z(o/u) edit

(transitive) to know
  • West Makian: wado
  • Galela: wasu
  • Tobelo: waho (but also waru, with the same meaning)
  • Sahu: waro (or borrowed from Ternate)
  • Ternate: waro
  • Tidore: waro

Nuclear North Halmaheran edit

*'ʔa.don edit

(intransitive) to arrive, reach

*'ʔa.res edit

(stative) to be white
Not in TT, WM, Pagu

*'ʔa.ri edit

(intransitive) to cry
  • Galela: ari
  • Loloda: ari
  • Tabaru: 'ari
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'ʔa.ri
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ʔa.ri
    • Ternate: 'ari
    • Tidore: yari (“to moan”)

*'ʔa.Zok edit

(transitive) to call, summon

*'ʔo.to edit

(transitive) to cut, chop

☆ These are all a little too similar

*'ʔo.Zik edit

("transitive") to bathe

*'ʔu.dar edit

(transitive) to weed

*'ʔu.tuk edit

(transitive) to pluck, pick, harvest

*'()a.kun edit

(auxiliary) to be allowed to, may; to be able to

*'()a.tom edit

body louse, bedbug
  • Galela: ato (“body louse”)
  • Loloda: atomo (“body louse”)
  • Tobelo: atomo (“bed bug, bamboe luis”)

*'ba.tiŋ edit

boundary, border, grens
  • ?Galela: bati (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
  • Tabaru: batingi
  • Tobelo: (van der Roest has "bàtėng" which may just represent "batingi")
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.ti

☆ Both Ternate and Tidore have fati ("to block, close"), and Ternate bati is thought to derive from N- + fati. But, no cognates of fati are found in other languages.

*'ba.waŋ edit

onion

☆ From PMP or from Malay specifically (for example, Philippine reflexes strictly mean garlic). Entered Halmahera at least before PTT lost finals.

  • ?Galela: bawa (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
  • Tobelo: bawanga
  • Modole: bawanga
  • Pagu: bawang
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ba.wa
    • Ternate: bawa
      • → Tobelo: bawa (alongside the inherited form above)
      • → Sahu: bawa
    • Tidore: bawa

*'ba.Zuk edit

axe

*'be.laŋ edit

lightning

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1elaŋ?

*'be.sak edit

rain

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1esak?

*'be.toŋ edit

word

☆ Nominalization (with N-) of *'p1etoŋ ("to say, mention").

*be.'Ze.Zoŋ edit

(transitive) to order (a good, service), to request, instruct, command

*'bi.dos edit

sirih
  • ?Galela: bido (may also be borrowed from Ternate)
  • Tobelo: bidoho
  • Tabaru: bidoso
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'bi.do
    • Ternate: bido
      • → Sahu: biḏo (expected reflex is *bidoso, possibly with implosion of d)
      • → Loloda: bido (expected reflex is *bidoso)
    • Tidore: bido

*'bi.on edit

face

*bo.'ʔo.car edit

octopus

*'bo.bor edit

nipa palm

*'bo.le edit

banana
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'bo.le
  • Tobelo: bole
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'bo.le

☆ Or a widespread borrowing.

*bo.'te.kon edit

arm, upper arm, forearm

*'ca.hi edit

(transitive) to carry on the back
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ta.hi
  • Tobelo: tai (“carry on the back, on the head”)
  • Tabaru: tai
  • Sahu: cai
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.hi

*'ca.kor edit

(transitive) to hit, strike (especially of a clock?)

*'co.mar edit

neck

*'cu.mut edit

(transitive) to point at, point, indicate

*'da.hen edit

(transitive) to get, obtain
  • Galela: dahe
  • Loloda: daene
  • Tobelo: (van der Roest has "daieni" ("to hunt down, catch up, get"))
  • Tabaru: daene
  • ?Sahu: daene (“to hit deliberately”)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'da.he

*'da.tom edit

☆ Compare with *utom

(transitive) to plant

*di.'ʔi.kit edit

cough

☆ Nominalization, through N-, of *tiʔikit ("to cough"). Glottal stop reconstructed only on the basis of Tabaru (see *tiʔikit).

*'di.p1aŋ ~ *'di.p1am? edit

sky

*'do.ḋa edit

inside, within (as a noun)
  • Loloda: doja
  • Tobelo: dol̄a
  • Tabaru: doda
  • Sahu: dara
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'do.ḋa
    • Ternate: daha
    • Tidore: doya
      • → Tobelo: doya (Listed in Hueting's dictionary (as doja) as borrowed from Ternate, but only Tidore has such a form)

*do.'wo.ŋi edit

and not *ḋowoŋi
beach, shore, coast

☆ Nominalization of *to.'wo.ŋi through N- prefixation.

*'du.dun edit

and not *ḋuḋun
back (body)

*'du.kon edit

volcano (and volcanic eruption? and/or lava)

*'ḋa.bos edit

(stative) swollen
  • West Makian: bosi
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ḋo.bos
    • Galela: ḋobo (Baarda lists dobo (with N- prefixed form nobo) but Wada has ḋobo and Loloda jobo)
    • Loloda: jobo
  • Pagu: yabos
  • Modole: oboho (expected reflex is *doboho)
  • Tobelo: l̄oboho, l̄aboho (Ellen's Modole dictionary has λaboho in the Tobelo column)
  • Sahu: roboso
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.bo

*'ḋa.bo(t) edit

(stative) wounded
  • Old West Makian: *ḋabo
    • West Makian: abo (Voorhoeve posits /*ḋ/ -> /_/ in all positions)
  • Galela: ḋabo
  • Loloda: jabo
  • Tobelo: l̄abo
  • Modole: dabo
  • Tabaru: dabo

☆ Final -t is reconstructed only on the basis of *(n/ɲ)a.bo(t)

*'ḋa.gi(m) edit

(transitive) to owe
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: 'ḋa.gi
    • Ternate: hagi (“debt”)
    • Tidore: yagi (“to owe”)

☆ Reconstructed with final m only on the basis of *'ɲa.gim ("debt").

*'ḋa.hus edit

(transitive) to smear, anoint

*'ḋa.ŋer edit

Alstonia scholaris (a tree)

*'ḋa.sir edit

(intransitive) to swallow
  • Galela: ḋasi
  • Tobelo: l̄ahiri (Ellen's Modole dictionary - under slikken)
  • Modole: ahili (expected reflex is *dahili)

*'ḋo.ku ~ 'ḋeku edit

mountain

*'ḋo.p1o(r) ~ 'ḋe.p1o(r) edit

smoke
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: 'ḋo.p1o
  • Tobelo: l̄oho
  • Tabaru: dowo
  • Sahu: loworo (Expected reflex is *roworo or *rowolo)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'yo.fo ~ *'ye.fo

*'(f/h)o.rik edit

(transitive) to see
  • West Makian: fidi (“to meet”) (If this is cognate to the rest, reconstruct *f, otherwise ??)
  • Tobelo: oriki
  • Modole: ngoli'i (with N- prefixation)
  • Sahu: oḏi'i
  • Ternate: nyodi (with irregular N- prefixation; expected form is *ngodi, since this h would derive from historical *h)

*'ga.gu(r/k) edit

vegetable fern

*'ga.te(r) edit

liver
From Austronesian with *N- prefixation. Compare Proto-Oceanic *qate.

*gi.'ti.p1ir edit

fingernail, toenail

*go.'ce.p1at edit

raft

*'go.ta(r) edit

tree

☆ Reconstructing final /r/ only because no other reconstructions seem to have final /l/, and Ibu neutralizes both to /l/ in final position.

*gu.'ru.min edit

shadow; reflection; life strength (in Visser & Voorhoeve: "kekuatan hidup"; in Ellen's Pagu dictionary: "zielestof")

*'gu.tiŋ edit

scissors

☆ We presume this form, but all NH terms seem borrowed from Ternate (except possibly Tidore and Galela)

*'ha.p1or edit

Canarium decumanum

*'i.ŋir edit

tooth

*'ja.Luk edit

sagwire (Dutch: sagoweer, saguweer), aren palm sap

*'ka.biŋ edit

goat

*'ka.wiŋ edit

(Nuclear NH)
(transitive) to marry, wed

☆ From Classical Malay (Late Old Malay?) kawin

  • Galela: kawi
  • Loloda: kawingi
  • Tobelo: kawingi (H)
  • Ternate: kai
    • → Tobelo: kawi (H) (presumably from an older form that preserved the w)

*ke.'le.lo ~ *ge.'le.lo edit

(transitive) to see

☆ The intial voiced terms may just be N- prefixation

*ko.'la.no ~ *'ko.la.n(a) edit

(Nuclear NH)
kolano

☆ Possibly from Old/Middle Javanese kalana (c.f. Javanese klana, from older form kelana), meaning "a fierce character, originally a prince from overseas" and "a wandering adventurer of noble birth from abroad". The initial stress reconstruction may have been borrowed with the final vowel, which would then have been re-interpreted as an echo vowel.

*'ko.Zo edit

(transitive) to fetch (of people), to invite

*'ku.sor edit

Phalanger orientalis

*'ku.sum edit

Imperata cylindrica

*'la.ḋem edit

(intransitive) to lick
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'la.ḋem
    tongue, (intransitive) to lick
    • Galela: laḋe (Baarda has ḋ, Wada mistakenly(?) writes d)
    • Loloda: lajeme (Baarda's grammar has ladjémé, whereas Wada has lajema)
  • Pagu: layem
  • Tobelo: al̄eme (unknown dialect)
  • Tabaru: aeme (with unexpected loss of *ḋ)
  • Ternate-Tidore: *'ya.le (presuming metathesis in this branch)

*'la.kem edit

meat

*'Lu.suŋ edit

mortar, rice pounder

☆ From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *lusuŋ (“mortar”).

  • ?West Makian: losong (Certainly from Austronesian; may or may not reflect this proto-form)
  • Galela: lusu
  • Loloda: lusungu
  • Tobelo: luhungu
  • Pagu: lusing (in Ellen)

*'ma.ḋek edit

(stative) to be ashamed
  • ?West Makian: maya
  • Galela: made (written as such by Baarda, but it must be a typo for maḋe)
  • Loloda: majeke
  • Tobelo: mal̄eke
  • Sahu: mara'a
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ma.ḋe
    • Ternate: mahe
    • Tidore: mae (may be underlyingly maye)

*'ma.ke edit

(transitive) to find, meet
  • Galela: make (“find, get, obtain”)
  • Loloda: make (“find”)
  • Tabaru: make (“see, meet, find”)

*'ma.nok edit

flying fox (paniki), bat, fruitbat

*'ma.ŋon edit

(stative) sharp

*mo.'la.yu(n)? edit

Malay (ethnicity)

☆ If we suppose that Tobelo and Pagu lost a final /n/, then we can reconstruct this proto-form. Otherwise, a late-stage borrowing that spread?

*mo.'le.(o/u)n edit

Megapodius freycinet

*'mo.kur edit

pinang, sirih; (intransitive) to chew sirih

☆ Fortgens (in his Tabaru grammar) lists Sahu-Waioli moudu (pg. 324), which mostly likely represents mo'uḏu or something similar. Visser and Voorhoeve don't list this.

*mo.'na.ram edit

work (noun)

*'mu.ruŋ ~ *'mu.rum edit

star

*'na.ko edit

(transitive) to know

*'na.mo(r) edit

bird, chicken

☆ Sahuic forms without a third consonant may be loans from Ternate

*'na.rot edit

(transitive) to pull
  • Loloda: naroto
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'na.ro

*'ŋa.ir edit

river

*'ɲa.bo(t) edit

wound
Nominalization, through N-, of *ḋabo(t).

*'ɲa.gim edit

debt
  • Galela: nagi
  • Loloda: nagimi
  • Tobelo: (van der Roest spelling is nagěmi)
  • Ternate: nyagi

*'ɲi.hik edit

(transitive) to follow, chase, hunt

*'o.ker edit

(transitive) to drink
  • Tobelo: okere
  • Modole: o'ele
  • Tabaru: okere
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'o.ʔe (with irregular loss of final /r/)
    • Sahu: o'e (Tala'i dialect)
    • Waioli: o'e
  • Ternate: oke
    • → Gamkonora: oke (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)
    • → Ibu: oke (following Visser and Voorhoeve p. 70)

*'p1a.Lus edit

(intransitive) to answer, respond

*'p2a.Lus edit

(intransitive) to answer, respond
  • Tobelo: paluhu
  • Sahu: paḏusu (“to call out in answer to someone in the distance”)

*'p2a.sa(r/l) edit

(stative) to be past (gone past, walked past, etc.)

☆ Reminiscent of Portuguese passar

*'p1e.kat edit

wife

*'p1e.laŋ edit

(transitive, intransitive) to open

*'p1e.sak edit

(stative) wet

*'p2i.lok edit

(stative) blind

*p1o.'ḋe.ka edit

wife
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *p1e.'ḋe.ka
  • Sahu: were'a
  • Waioli: were'a
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *fo.'ye.ka
    • Ternate: foheka
    • Tidore: fayaa (Hueting has "fofoja" for woman [compare Ternate fofoheka], suggesting a form "foyaa" as well)

*'p1o.ki edit

eggplant

*'p1o.kor edit

(stative) pregnant

*'p2o.kor edit

belly

*p2o.'li.kur edit

(transitive) to bind (mengikat)

*p2o.'lo.tek edit

(intransitive) to burst

*'p1o.nat edit

ridge (of a roof, house)

*p2o.'ro.tok edit

(transitive) to chew

*'p1o.son edit

(stative) forbidden

*p2o.'tu.ruŋ edit

(stative) strong

*'p1u.ku(r) edit

knee

*'ra.cim edit

poison

*'ro.hes edit

body, flesh
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'ro.hes ("body")
  • Tobelo: rohe (“body”) (may be rohee), roehe (in Hueting)
  • Tabaru: roese
  • Pagu: loes
  • Proto-Sahuic: *'lo.hes ("body")
    • Sahu: lese
    • Waioli: lese
    • Gamkonora: lese
    • Ibu: lose (perhaps as *lohese -> *losehe -> *losee)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'re.he ("flesh")

*'ro.kat edit

husband

*'sa.man edit

proa outrigger

*'sa.p1in edit

(stative) hungry

*'sa.yak edit

flower

*se.'le.wo? edit

stone

*'si.det edit

sail, (intransitive) to sail

*'si.Lo edit

resin, torch

*ti.'ʔi.kit edit

(intransitive) to cough

*'to.boŋ edit

(intransitive) to swim

*'to.ḋom edit

(stative) sharp, pointed; (transitive) to sharpen

*to.'ma.kon edit

axe

*'to.nok edit

(transitive) to submerge, soak, dunk, dip
  • Galela: tono
  • Tabaru: tonoko
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.no
    • Ternate: tono
      • → Sahu: tono (expected reflex is "tono'o")
    • Tidore: tono

*'to.p2ok edit

(transitive) to pierce, stab
  • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'to.p2ok
  • Tobelo: topoko
  • Pagu: topok
  • Modole: topo'o
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'to.p2o
    • Ternate: topo
    • Tidore: tofa (with irregular final vowel)

*to.'wo.ŋi edit

  • (intransitive) to walk along the water's edge (beach, shore, river, etc.)
  • Galela: towongi
  • Loloda: tongi
  • Tobelo: towongi (“to walk along the beach”) ("weg langs het strand gaan")
  • Sahu: tongitongi (“to walk along the river”)
  • Ternate: towongi

*'tu.mun edit

*'tu.tuk edit

*'u.bor edit

female (red) Eclectus roratus

*'u.tuk edit

root (of a plant)

*'wa.ŋe(r) edit

sun, day

*'wa.to(n/l) edit

(stative) naked

*'wo.mas edit

breath, (intransitive) to breathe

*'wo.ŋem edit

(protective?) spirit

*'wo.sam edit

(transitive) to enter

*'wo.tom edit

(transitive) to bury
  • Sahu: otomo (“to bury, plant”)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.to

☆ Compare with *'da.tom

*'wo.t(u/i)t edit

navel, umbilical cord
  • ?West Makian: woki, okit (possibly related?)
  • Galela: woti
  • Loloda: potiti (?????????)
  • Tobelo: wotiti
  • Sahu: ututu (from PSahuic *wutut?)
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'wo.tu

Numeral Reconstructions edit

*'mo.i edit

(Nuclear NH only; WM has minyé)

*diŋ edit

two

☆ Listing this as *diŋ and not *di for a few reasons:

  1. the West Makian form
  2. works well with the reconstruction for 7
  3. Fortgens (in his Tabaru grammar) connects this with the word for "day after/before tomorrow" which can be reconstructed as PNNH *(mo)'diriŋ (PNH form still uncertain)

*si.'no.to edit

(Nuclear NH - partial)

*'ʔa.ŋe(r) edit

three

*fat edit

four

*'to.fa(r) edit

five

*Zam or *ram edit

six

☆ not enough data to determine the initial consonant

*bu.'ta.ŋa edit

(Nuclear NH - partial)
six

*tof.'diŋ edit

seven

☆ Possible etymology: *tofa (“five”) +‎ *diŋ (“two”) → *ˌto.fa.'diŋ → *ˌtof.'diŋ (vowel elision)
☆☆ Old West Makian: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtop.'diŋ (fortition) → *ˌtep.'diŋ (vowel assimilation) → *ˌte.pe.'diŋ (re-epenthesis)
☆☆ Pre-Galela-Loloda/Modole/Sahuic: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ(i) (fricative to nasal) → *ˌto.mo.'diŋ(i) (re-epenthesis)
☆☆ Pre-Tabaru/Pagu: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ(i) (fricative to nasal) → *ˌto.mo.'di.ʔiŋ(i) (re-epenthesis and spontaneous lengthening?)
☆☆ Pre-Ternate-Tidore: *ˌtof.'diŋ → *ˌtom.'diŋ (fricative to nasal) → *ˌtom.'di (loss of final consonant) → *ˌto.mo.'di (re-epenthesis) → *ˌto.mo.'di.ʔi (lengthening of final stressed vowel to fit syllable pattern; c.f. kurusii, etc.)
☆ Particularly strange is the */u/ that most languages have. The etymology above points to */o/, but comparatively, each and every language supports */u/. Most mainland languages are quite conservative with vowels, which makes this even stranger.

*tof.'ʔa.ŋe(r) edit

eight

☆ Possible etymology: *tofa (“five”) +‎ *ʔaŋe(r) (“three”) → *ˌto.fa.'ʔa.ŋe(r) → *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe(r) (vowel elision)
☆☆ Old West Makian: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe → *ˌtof.'ka.ŋe (fortition) → *ˌtok.'pa.ŋe (fortition and methathesis) → *ˌtok.'ba.ŋe (spontaneous voicing?)
☆☆ Pre-Galela-Loloda: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe → *ˌtop.'ʔa.ŋe (fortition) → *ˌto.pa.'ʔa.ŋe (re-epenthesis)
☆☆ Pre-Tobelo/Modole/Pagu/Tabaru: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋe(r) → *ˌto.'fa.ŋe(r) (glottal stop elision / cluster simplification) → *ˌto.'ha.ŋe(r) (passing from NH to Nuclear NH)
☆☆ Pre-Sahuic: *ˌtof.'ʔa.ŋer → *ˌto.'ʔa.ŋer (cluster simplification)
☆ Particularly strange is the */u/ that most languages have. The etymology above points to */o/, but comparatively, each and every language could support */u/. Most mainland languages are quite conservative with vowels, which makes this even stranger.

*'si.wo(r) edit

nine
  • West Makian: siwe (vowel assimilation?)
  • Proto-Nuclear North Halmahera: *'si.wo(r)
    • Proto-Galela-Loloda: *'si.wo
    • Tobelo: hiwo (H)
    • Pagu: siwo
    • Tabaru: siwo
    • Proto-Sahuic: *'si.wor
    • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'si.o (irregular loss of *w)

*mo.gi.'o.wok edit

(Nuclear NH - partial)
ten

*mo.na.'ha.lok edit

(Nuclear NH - partial)
twenty

*'ra.tus edit

hundred

*'ca.lan? edit

thousand
  • West Makian: calan (found in "calannye", where "nye" may be from "minye" ("one"))
  • Galela: cala
  • Loloda: calana
  • Tobelo: cana (saana found in Holton)
  • Tabaru: caana
  • Proto-Ternate-Tidore: *'ca.la
    • Ternate: cala
      • → Sahu: cala (expected reflex is calana)
    • Tidore: cala

☆ Extremely odd that all terms have initial c. Maybe(???) influence from Ternate?

Development by Language edit

West Makian edit

  • In some cases, West Makian has final /i/ where the reconstruction has final consonant.
  1. *aun -> uni
  2. *samam -> samami
  3. *ḋabos -> bosi
  • In some cases, the last vowel of the West Makian reflex is /i/ in place of reconstructed /*u/. Note also Gane manik (“bird”), which may at least be related to the source of tadik.
  1. *opu(n/ŋ) -> pin
  2. *taduk -> tadik
Compare also West Makian simur, cognate to Malay sumur.
However, *safuk -> safo
  • Many of these terms suggest Old West Makian had ultimate (instead of penultimate) stress
  • My original hypothesis (now untenable) was that WM terms without final consonant were all loans from PTT. However, West Makian sopo is extremely unlikely to be a loan from PTT *sofo. Some such terms may ultimately be from PTT, but this shows that WM did lose final consonants independently too (just as Galela and PTT).

Notes edit

Lexical edit

  1. Compare NH *'p1oko(r/l) ("pregnant") and *'p2okor ("belly").
  2. PNH *dipaŋ/dipam and PNH *tupam may be doublets, and are often considered together.
  3. PNH *(n/ɲ)agim may be an N- prefixed form of some PNH term reflected in Ternate hagi. Galela, Loloda, and Sahu all show hagi as well, but these appear to be Ternate loans.
  4. PNH *s(o/a)mam ("crocodile") and *saman ("outrigger") are considered the same by Hueting, who states that *s(o/a)mam is a taboo substitution for the original term.

Potential Reconstructions? edit

  1. Galela gososo, Loloda gojoro, and Ternate goroho (and Sahu goroho, Tobelo goroho), all meaning "oil".
  2. Galela tase, Loloda taje, Sahu tare, Ternate tare, Tobelo tahe, all meaning "to creep, crawl"
  3. Galela wosa, Loloda wojanga, Tobelo wohanga, all meaning "to forget"

Tree edit

Putatively:

  • Old West Makian (isolated reconstructions provided by Voorhoeve)
    • West Makian
      • various dialects by village
  • Nuclear NH:
    • Galela-Loloda:
      • Galela
      • Loloda
    • Tobelo
      • Heleworuru dialect (Tobelo district - "genuine" or unmarked variety)
      • Boeng dialect (Kao district)
      • Dodinga dialect
    • Modole
    • Paguic:
      • Pagu
      • Kao
    • Tabaru
      • Nyeku dialect
      • Adu dialect
    • Sahuic:
      • Sahu
        • Paḏisua dialect
        • Tala'i dialect
      • Waioli
      • Gamkonora
      • Ibu
    • Ternate-Tidore:
      • Ternate
      • Tidore

Possible groupings edit

  • Galela-Loloda and Tobelo may form a higher-order grouping. Traditional histories link the ethnic groups, and linguistically there is some shared lexicon not found in other branches (see *sinoto ("two") above, which even Pagu, Modole, and Tabaru don't share). A morphological analysis would be better to justify this.
  • Some "Northern" family grouping comprising of some or all of: Galela-Loloda, Tobelo, Tabaru, Pagu-Kao, Modole; note *butanga ("six"), *mogiowok ("ten"), and *monahalok ("twenty").
Retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=User:Alexlin01/NH_cognates&oldid=78304799"