Appendix:Min Swadesh lists
This is a Swadesh list of words in Min, specifically Hokkien and Eastern Min, compared with that of English.
Presentation edit
- For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
List edit
Romanisation scheme used for Hokkien is POJ. Vocabulary and pronunciation based on Hokkien and Hokchiu. Note that the listed names are those of the local varieties only. The collective name of Min is 閩語／闽语.
| № | English | Hokkien 閩南語／闽南语 edit (207) | Eastern Min 閩東語／闽东语 (mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄) edit (207) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I (1sg) | 我 (góa) | 我 (nguāi) |
| 2 | you (2sg) | 汝 (lí) | 汝 (nṳ̄) |
| 3 | he, she, it (3sg) | 伊 (i) | 伊 (ĭ) |
| 4 | we (1pl) | 阮 (gún)*, 咱 (lán)* | 我各儂／我各侬 (nguāi gáuk→gó̤k-nè̤ng) |
| 5 | you (2pl) | 恁 (lín) | 汝各儂／汝各侬 (nṳ̄ gáuk→gó̤k-nè̤ng) |
| 6 | they (3pl) | 𪜶 (in) | 伊各儂／伊各侬 (ĭ gáuk→gó̤k-nè̤) |
| 7 | this | 這／这 (che), 即個／即个 (chit-ê) | 嚽／𪢕 (cuòi), 茲隻／兹只 |
| 8 | that | 許／许 (he), 彼個／彼个 (hit-ê) | 噲／哙 (huòi), 許隻／许只 (hī-ciáh→ciéh) |
| 9 | here | 者, 遮 (chia) | 嚽塊／𪢕块 (cŭ-uái), 嚽所／𪢕所 |
| 10 | there | 許／许, 遐 (hia) | 夫塊／夫块, 夫所 |
| 11 | who | 啥人 (siáⁿ-lâng), 倽 (siáng)* | 底儂／底侬 (diē→dié-nè̤ng, dē̤→dé̤-nè̤ng) |
| 12 | what | 啥物 (siáⁿ-mih), 甚麼／甚么 (sīm-mi̍h), 佗一個／佗一个, 叨一個／叨一个 (tó-chi̍t-ê)* | 什乇 (sié-nó̤h, siéh-nó̤h) |
| 13 | where | 佗位, 叨位 (tó-ūi) | 底所 (diē-nē̤, dē̤-nē̤) |
| 14 | when | 甚麼時陣／甚么时阵 (sīm-mi̍h-sî-chūn)*, 當時／当时 (tang-sî) | 什乇辰候 |
| 15 | how | 如何 (jû-hô)*, 按怎 (án-chóaⁿ)*, 怎樣／怎样 (chóanⁿ-iūⁿ)* | 蔣／蒋 (ciōng) |
| 16 | not | 不 (put)*, 毋 (m̄)*, 袂, 𣍐／𫧃 (bē)*, 莫, 勿, 勿愛／勿爱 (mài)*, 無／无 (bô) | 伓 (îng), 伓是 (îng-sê) |
| 17 | all | 全部 (chôan-pō͘), 規／规, 歸／归 (kui), 所有 (só͘-ū)*, 攏／拢 (lóng)*, 攏總／拢总 (lóng-chóng)* | 全部 (ciòng-buô), 所有 (sū-iū), 一切 |
| 18 | many | 濟／济, 多支 (chōe) | 価 (cá̤) |
| 19 | some | 一寡 (chi̍t-kóa), 幾若個／几若个 (kúi-nā-ê) | 仂囝 (nék→ník-giāng) |
| 20 | few | 少 (chió) | 少 (ciēu) |
| 21 | other | 其他 (kî-thaⁿ), 別的／别的 (pa̍t-ê) | 其他 (gì-tă) |
| 22 | one | 一 (it, chi̍t) | 蜀 (siŏh), 一 (ék) |
| 23 | two | 兩／两 (nn̄g), 二 (jī) | 兩／两 (lâng), 二 (nê) |
| 24 | three | 三 (saⁿ) | 三 (săng) |
| 25 | four | 四 (sì) | 四 (sé) |
| 26 | five | 五 (ngō) | 五 (ngô) |
| 27 | big | 大 (tōa) | 大 (duâi) |
| 28 | long | 長／长 (tn̂g) | 長／长 (dòng) |
| 29 | wide | 闊／阔 (khoah) | 寬／宽 (kuăng) |
| 30 | thick | 厚 (kāu) | 厚 (gâu) |
| 31 | heavy | 重 (tāng) | 重 (dâe̤ng) |
| 32 | small | 細／细 (sòe) | 嫩 (nâung) |
| 33 | short | 短 (té) | 短 (dōi) |
| 34 | narrow | 隘 (o̍eh) | 窄 (cáh) |
| 35 | thin | 薄 (po̍h) | 薄 (bŏk) |
| 36 | woman | 女人 (lú-jîn)*, 查某 (cha-bó͘)* | 女界 (nṳ̄-gái) |
| 37 | man (adult male) | 男人 (lâm-jîn)*, 查埔 (cha-po͘)* | 男界 (nàng-gái) |
| 38 | man (human being) | 人, 儂／侬 (lâng) | 儂／侬 (nè̤ng) |
| 39 | child | 囝仔, 囡仔 (gín-á)*, 兒童／儿童 (jî-tông)* | 伲囝 (niê-giāng) |
| 40 | wife | 某 (bó͘) | 老媽／老妈 (lâu-mā) |
| 41 | husband | 翁 (ang) | 唐餔／唐𫗦 (dòng-buŏ) |
| 42 | mother | 母親／母亲 (bú-chhin)*, 老母 (lāu-bú), 媽媽／妈妈 (ma-ma), 阿母 (a-bú) | 娘奶 (nòng-nā̤) |
| 43 | father | 父親／父亲 (hū-chhin)*, 老爸 (lāu-pē), 爸爸 (pa-pa), 阿爸 (a-pa) | 郎爸 |
| 44 | animal | 動物／动物 (tōng-bu̍t) | 動物／动物 (dông-ŭk) |
| 45 | fish | 魚／鱼 (hî) | 魚／鱼 (ngṳ̀) |
| 46 | bird | 鳥／鸟 (chiáu), 鳥仔／鸟仔 (chiáu-á) | 鳥囝／鸟囝 |
| 47 | dog | 狗 (káu), 狗仔 (káu-á) | 犬囝 (kēng-giāng) |
| 48 | louse | 虱 (sat), 虱母 (sat-bú) | 蝨母／虱母 (sáik-mō̤) |
| 49 | snake | 蛇 (chôa) | 老蛇 (lâu-siè) |
| 50 | worm | 蟲／虫 (thâng), 土蚓 (tō͘-ún/tō͘-kún)* | 蟲囝／虫囝 (tè̤ng-giāng) |
| 51 | tree | 樹／树 (chhiū), 樹仔／树仔 (chhiū-á) | 樹／树 (chéu) |
| 52 | forest | 森林 (sim-lîm), 樹林／树林 (chhiū-nâ) | 森林 (sĕng-lìng) |
| 53 | stick | 樹枝／树枝 (chhiū-ki)*, 枝仔 (ki-á)* | 樹椏／树桠 |
| 54 | fruit | 水果 (chúi-kó), 果子 (kóe-chí) | 果實／果实 |
| 55 | seed | 種子／种子 (chéng-chí) | 子子 (cī-*cī) |
| 56 | leaf | 葉／叶 (hio̍h), 葉仔／叶仔 (hio̍h-á) | 箬箬 (niŏh-niŏh) |
| 57 | root | 根 (kun) | 根根 |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | 樹皮／树皮 (chhiū-phê) | 樹皮／树皮 |
| 59 | flower | 花 (hoe) | 花 (huă) |
| 60 | grass | 草 (chháu) | 草 (chāu) |
| 61 | rope | 索 (soh), 索仔 (soh-á) | 索 (só̤h) |
| 62 | skin | 皮 (phê), 皮膚／皮肤 (phê-hu) | 皮膚／皮肤 (puòi-hŭ) |
| 63 | meat | 肉 (bah) | 肉 (nṳ̆k) |
| 64 | blood | 血 (huih), 血液 (hiat-e̍k) | 血 (háik) |
| 65 | bone | 骨 (kut), 骨頭／骨头 (kut-thâu) | 骨骨 (gáuk-gáuk) |
| 66 | fat (noun) | 脂肪 (chi-hông)*, 膩瓤／腻瓤 (jī-nn̂g)* | 脂肪 (ciĕ-huòng) |
| 67 | egg | 卵 (nn̄g), 雞卵／鸡卵 (koe-nn̄g)* | 卵 (lâung) |
| 68 | horn | 角 (kak) | 角角 (gáe̤k-gáe̤k) |
| 69 | tail | 尾 (bé), 尾溜 (bé-liu) | 尾尾 (muōi-muōi) |
| 70 | feather | 鳥毛／鸟毛 (chiáu-mn̂g) | 羽毛 (ṳ̄-mò̤) |
| 71 | hair | 頭毛／头毛 (thâu-mn̄g) | 頭髮／头发 (tàu-huók) |
| 72 | head | 頭／头 (thâu)*, 頭殼／头壳 (thâu-khak) | 頭／头 (tàu) |
| 73 | ear | 耳 (hīⁿ), 耳仔 (hīⁿ-á), 耳孔 (hīⁿ-khang) | 耳 (ngê) |
| 74 | eye | 目睭 (ba̍k-chiu) | 目睭 (mĕk-ciŭ) |
| 75 | nose | 鼻 (phīⁿ), 鼻仔 (phīⁿ-á) | 鼻 (pé) |
| 76 | mouth | 嘴 (chhùi) | 喙 (chói) |
| 77 | tooth | 嘴齒／嘴齿 (chhùi-khí) | 牙 (ngāi) |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | 舌 (chih), 嘴舌 (chhùi-chih) | 喙舌 (ché̤ṳ-siĕk) |
| 79 | fingernail | 指甲 (chéng-kah) | 掌甲 (ciēng-gák) |
| 80 | foot | 腳／脚, 跤 (kha) | 骹 |
| 81 | leg | 腿 (thúi) | 骹腿 (kă-tōi) |
| 82 | knee | 腳頭窩／脚头窝 (kha-thâu-u) | 骹屈頭／骹屈头 |
| 83 | hand | 手 (chhiú) | 手 (chiū) |
| 84 | wing | 翼 (e̍k)*, 翅, 翼 (si̍t), 翅仔, 翼仔 (si̍t-á), 翅股, 翼股 (si̍t-kó͘) | 翼翼 (sĭk-sĭk) |
| 85 | belly | 腹肚 (pak-tó͘) | 腹老 (bók-lō̤) |
| 86 | guts | 腸仔／肠仔 (pak-tó͘) | 腸／肠 (dòng) |
| 87 | neck | 頷頸／颔颈 (ām-kún) | 脰骨 (dâu-gáuk) |
| 88 | back | 尻脊骿 (kha-chiah-phiaⁿ) | 骿 (piăng) |
| 89 | breast | 胸 (hiong)*, 胸部 (hiong-pō͘)*, 胸坎 (heng-khám)*, 奶房 (leng-pông)* | ？？ |
| 90 | heart | 心臟／心脏 (sim-chōng) | 心臟／心脏 (sĭng-câung) |
| 91 | liver | 肝 (koaⁿ)*, 肝臟／肝脏 (koaⁿ-chōng) | 肝臟／肝脏 (găng-câung) |
| 92 | to drink | 啉 (lim) | 啜 |
| 93 | to eat | 食 (chia̍h) | 食 |
| 94 | to bite | 咬 (kā) | 咬 |
| 95 | to suck | 吸 (khip)*, (empty) (chi̍p)*, 吸 (suh)* | 吸, 噈 |
| 96 | to spit | 呸 (phùi)*, 呸瀾／呸澜 (phùi-nōa)*, 呸嘴瀾／呸嘴澜 (phùi-chhùi-nōa)*, 呸痰 (phùi-thâm)* | 啡, 吐 |
| 97 | to vomit | 嘔／呕 (áu)*, 吐 (thò͘)*, 嘔吐／呕吐 (áu-thò͘)* | 哊 (áe̤h→é̤h) |
| 98 | to blow | 吹 (chhe), 歕／𬅫 (pûn) | 吹 (chuŏi), 㖹 |
| 99 | to breathe | 呼吸 (ho͘-khip)*, 喘氣／喘气 (chhóan-khùi) | 呼吸 (hù-ngék) |
| 100 | to laugh | 笑 (chhiò) | 笑 (chiéu) |
| 101 | to see | 看 (khòaⁿ) | 覷／觑 (ché̤ṳ) |
| 102 | to hear | 聽／听 (thiaⁿ) | 聽／听 |
| 103 | to know | 知 (chai), 知影 (chai-iáⁿ), 捌 (pat)* | 仈 (báik) |
| 104 | to think | 想 (siūⁿ) | 想 (siōng) |
| 105 | to smell | 鼻 (phīⁿ) | 齅 (bê) |
| 106 | to fear | 驚／惊 (kiaⁿ) | 驚／惊 |
| 107 | to sleep | 睏／困 (khùn) | 睏／困 (káung) |
| 108 | to live | 活 (o̍ah) | 住 |
| 109 | to die | 死 (sí) | 死 |
| 110 | to kill | 刣 (thâi) | 刣 (tài) |
| 111 | to fight | 冤家 (oan-ke)*, 相拍 (sio-phah)*, 相刣 (sio-thâi)* | 相拍 (siŏng-*páh) |
| 112 | to hunt | 拍獵／拍猎 (phah-la̍h) | 討／讨 (tō̤) |
| 113 | to hit | 拍 (phah) | 拍 (páh) |
| 114 | to cut | 割 (koah)*, 切 (chhiat)*, 鉸／铰 (ka)* | 砍, 削 (siók) |
| 115 | to split | 破開／破开, 剖開／剖开 (phòa-khui)*, 裂開／裂开 (liʔ²¹ kʰui⁵⁵)*, 分開／分开 (hun-khui)* | 分 |
| 116 | to stab | 刺 (chhì), 剸／𰄞 (chân), 突 (tu̍h) | ？ |
| 117 | to scratch | 扒 (pê) | 扒 (bà) |
| 118 | to dig | 挖 (ó͘, óe, iah), 窌 (liú), 掘 (ku̍t) | 挖 (uă) |
| 119 | to swim | 泅水 (siû-chúi) | 泅 (siù) |
| 120 | to fly | 飛／飞 (pe) | 飛／飞 |
| 121 | to walk | 行 (kiâⁿ)*, 行路 (kiâⁿ-lō͘)*, 步行 (pō͘-hêng)*, 步行 (pō͘-kiâⁿ)*, 步輦／步辇 (pō͘-lián)* | 行 |
| 122 | to come | 來／来 (lâi) | 來／来 |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | 倒 (tó)* | 倒 |
| 124 | to sit | 坐 (chē) | 坐 |
| 125 | to stand | 站 (chām)*, 徛, 企 (khiā) | 徛 (kiê) |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | 斡 (oat)* | 轉／转 |
| 127 | to fall | 落落 (lak-lo̍h) | 逿／𰺲 (dâung) |
| 128 | to give | 予, 互, 給／给 (hō͘) | 乞 (ké̤ṳk) |
| 129 | to hold | 提 (the̍h) | 掏 (dò̤) |
| 130 | to squeeze | 𢯰 (lu̍t) | 攝／摄 |
| 131 | to rub | 㨎 (loán) | 磨 |
| 132 | to wash | 洗 (sóe) | 洗 (sā̤) |
| 133 | to wipe | 拭 (chhit) | 拭 (chék) |
| 134 | to pull | 扭 (khiú, giú) | 牽／牵 |
| 135 | to push | 拺 (sak) | 捵 (tiāng) |
| 136 | to throw | 撣／掸 (tàn) | 扔 |
| 137 | to tie | 縛／缚 (pa̍k) | 縛／缚 (buŏh) |
| 138 | to sew | 縫／缝 (pâng), 紩／𮉢 (thīⁿ) | 䋎／𬘜 (tiéng) |
| 139 | to count | 數／数 (siàu) | 數／数 |
| 140 | to say | 講／讲 (kóŋ) | 講／讲 (gōng) |
| 141 | to sing | 唱 (chhiùⁿ) | 唱 (chióng) |
| 142 | to play | 耍 (sńg), 跮踱, 𨑨迌 (chhit-thô)* | 客佻 (káh-dièu) |
| 143 | to float | 浮 (phû) | 浮 |
| 144 | to flow | 流 (lâu) | 流 |
| 145 | to freeze | 結冰／结冰 (kiat-peng) | 結冰／结冰 |
| 146 | to swell | 膨大 (phòng-tōa) | 腫／肿 (cṳ̄ng) |
| 147 | sun | 太陽／太阳 (thài-iông)*, 日頭／日头 (ji̍t-thâu)* | 日頭／日头 (nĭk-tàu) |
| 148 | moon | 月亮 (ge̍h-niû) | 月 (nguŏk) |
| 149 | star | 星 (chhiⁿ) | 星星 (sĭng sĭng) |
| 150 | water | 水 (chùi) | 水 |
| 151 | rain | 雨 (hō͘) | 雨 |
| 152 | river | 河 (hô) | 河 (ò̤) |
| 153 | lake | 湖 (ô͘) | 湖 (hù) |
| 154 | sea | 海 (hái) | 海 (hāi) |
| 155 | salt | 鹽／盐 (iâm) | 鹽／盐 |
| 156 | stone | 石 (chio̍h)*, 石頭／石头 (chio̍h-thâu) | 石 |
| 157 | sand | 沙 (soa) | 沙 |
| 158 | dust | 土粉 (thô͘-hún) | 塕塵／塕尘 (ŭng-dìng) |
| 159 | earth | 地球 (tē-kiû)* | 涂 |
| 160 | cloud | 雲／云 (hûn) | 雲／云 (hùng) |
| 161 | fog | 霧／雾 (bū) | 霧／雾 (ô) |
| 162 | sky | 天 (thiⁿ) | 天 (tiĕng) |
| 163 | wind | 風／风 (hong) | 風／风 (hŭng) |
| 164 | snow | 雪 (seh) | 雪 (siók) |
| 165 | ice | 冰 (peng) | 冰 (bĭng) |
| 166 | smoke | 薰 (hun) | 煙／烟 (iĕng) |
| 167 | fire | 火 (hé) | 火 |
| 168 | ash | 灰 (he)*, 火灰 (hé-hu) | 灰 (huŏi) |
| 169 | to burn | 焚 (hiâⁿ) | 燒／烧 (siĕu) |
| 170 | road | 路 (lō͘) | 墿／𰉣 (diô) |
| 171 | mountain | 山 (soaⁿ) | 山 (săng) |
| 172 | red | 紅／红 (âng) | 紅／红 |
| 173 | green | 綠／绿 (le̍k), 青 (chhiⁿ) | 綠／绿 |
| 174 | yellow | 黃／黄 (n̂g) | 黃／黄 (uòng) |
| 175 | white | 白 (pe̍h) | 白 |
| 176 | black | 烏／乌 (o͘) | 烏／乌 (ŭ) |
| 177 | night | 暗時／暗时 (àm-sî) | 暝晡 (màng-buŏ) |
| 178 | day | 日時／日时 (ji̍t-sî) | 日中 (nĭk-dŏng) |
| 179 | year | 年 (nî) | 年 (nièng) |
| 180 | warm | 燒烙／烧烙 (sio-lō) | 熱／热 (iĕk) |
| 181 | cold | 寒 (kôaⁿ) | 凊 (chéng) |
| 182 | full | 滿／满 (bóan/móa), 滇, 淀 (tīⁿ) | 滿／满 |
| 183 | new | 新 (sin) | 新 (sĭng) |
| 184 | old | 老 (lāu)*, 舊／旧 (kū)* | 舊／旧 |
| 185 | good | 好 (hó) | 好 |
| 186 | bad | 歹 (pháiⁿ) | 呆 (ngài) |
| 187 | rotten | 餲／𮩝 (àu), 臭爛／臭烂 (chhàu-nōa) | 飲腐／饮腐 |
| 188 | dirty | 垃圾 (lah-sap) | 拉渣 |
| 189 | straight | 直 (tit) | 直 (dĭk) |
| 190 | round | 圓／圆 (îⁿ) | 圓／圆, 環／环 (kuàng) |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | 利 (lāi) | 利 |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | 鈍／钝 (tūn) | 𣍐利／𫧃利 |
| 193 | smooth | 光滑 (kng-ku̍t) | 滑 |
| 194 | wet | 濕／湿 (sip), 霑／沾 (tâm) | 潤／润, 潮濕／潮湿, 濫／滥 (lâng) |
| 195 | dry | 焦 (ta) | 焦 |
| 196 | correct | 著 (tio̍h)*, 正確／正确 (chèng-khak)* | 正確／正确 (ciáng-káuk), 無綻／无绽 |
| 197 | near | 近 (kūn) | 近 (gê̤ṳng), 接近 |
| 198 | far | 遠／远 (hn̄g) | 遠／远 |
| 199 | right | 正 (chiàⁿ) | 右 (iêu) |
| 200 | left | 倒 (tò) | 左 (cō̤) |
| 201 | at | 佇, 於／于 (tī) | 敆, 着 |
| 202 | in | 佇……裡／伫……里 (tī… lāi) | 裡勢／里势 (diē-sié) |
| 203 | with | 佮 (kap) | 共 |
| 204 | and | 佮 (kap) | 共 |
| 205 | if | 若是 (nā-sī) | 若是 (iŏk-sê), 如果 (ṳ̀-guō) |
| 206 | because | 因為／因为 (in-ūi) | 因為／因为 (ĭng-ôi) |
| 207 | name | 名 (miâ)* | 名字 (miàng-cê) |