Appendix:Proto-Ring reconstructions
The following list of Proto-Ring reconstructions is from Paulin (1995).
List edit
| No. | Gloss | Proto-Ring |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | animal | *ɲámè |
| 2 | ant (DROP) | |
| 3 | arm | *kɔ́ìn |
| 4 | ashes | *búd`, *dúmè |
| 5 | axe | *dàmú, *pɔ́ú |
| 6 | back | *dùmɛ́ |
| 7 | bag | *bòàdì, *tùèŋí |
| 8 | bamboo | *dúɛ̀ŋ |
| 9 | basket | *kùà, *púkò |
| 10 | bean | *kónì |
| 11 | bed | *kùná, *dúɔ̀ |
| 12 | bee | *dúdɔ̀ |
| 13 | beehive | *gùák |
| 14 | behind | *bám̀ |
| 15 | belly | *búŋɛ̀, *nùà, *dúà |
| 16 | belt | *kúɔ̀ |
| 17 | bird | *núnì |
| 18 | bleeding cup | *gúè, *túɔ́ŋí |
| 19 | blood | *dúŋá, *káŋù |
| 20 | body | *gúéǹ |
| 21 | bone | *gúpɛ́ |
| 22 | bow | *túŋá, *gòŋà |
| 23 | branch | *tám̀, *kúè |
| 24 | breast | *gínɛ̀, *dóɔ̀n |
| 25 | bridge | *dúà, *kúàk |
| 26 | bundle | *búkó |
| 27 | buttock | *tát`, *gúŋ |
| 28 | cadaver | *kúnɔ̀, *gùd |
| 29 | calabash | *tíɔ̀m |
| 30 | calabash 2 | *gùɔ̀ |
| 31 | cane rat | *dúdè |
| 32 | caterpillar (DROP) | |
| 33 | cave | *búkè, *tɛ́ŋɔ̀ |
| 34 | ceiling | *tán`, *káŋì, *túɔ́ŋí |
| 35 | charcoal | *kúɛ̀ |
| 36 | cheek / jaw | *gíɔ̀k, *díɔ̀k, *bók |
| 37 | chest | *gàŋtò, *dɔ̀kɔ́, *kàmɛ́dè |
| 38 | chief | *púɔ́nì, *túm |
| 39 | chief's palace | *tók` |
| 40 | child | *bùàní |
| 41 | clay (mud) | *tákɔ́ |
| 42 | cleverness / sense | *tɔ́pà |
| 43 | cloth(ing) | *dùé |
| 44 | cloud | *bàkɔ́ |
| 45 | cockroach (bigger) | *pɛ́ŋú |
| 46 | cocoyam | *dáŋ`, *kókìŋ |
| 47 | cooking stone | *túmɔ̀ |
| 48 | cornbeer | *káŋ´, *kùé |
| 49 | country | *dákɔ̀ |
| 50 | cowry | *gúkɛ́, *kádù |
| 51 | crab | *kímɔ́ |
| 52 | crack | *kákà, *páŋɔ̀, *dúà |
| 53 | cricket / whistle | *dùŋà, *tìtɛ́ |
| 54 | dance | *bínà |
| 55 | day | *túkɛ́ |
| 56 | daytime | *tùtì |
| 57 | death | *kúɔ̀, *gú` |
| 58 | dew | *múákà |
| 59 | dog | *búà |
| 60 | dream | *dímɔ̀ |
| 61 | dry season | *dɔ́mù |
| 62 | dus | *bín, *búdè |
| 63 | dwarf cow | *bɔ̀ŋò |
| 64 | ear | *túndé |
| 65 | egg | *gúmɔ̀ |
| 66 | elephant | *tàm, *nàmdì |
| 67 | eye | *túɛ̀ |
| 68 | face | *kúkà, *tútúm̀ |
| 69 | farm | *dùìmò, *gónì, *túmɔ́ / pók` |
| 70 | fat | *dúà, *kúàk |
| 71 | father | *bíàmá, *tí` |
| 72 | fence | *bàìŋ, *gɔ́kì |
| 73 | fig tree | *gúmà |
| 74 | fire | *bút` |
| 75 | fish | *tùá |
| 76 | fish hook | *tákɔ̀ |
| 77 | flesh | *dùà |
| 78 | fly | *dìà |
| 79 | foot | *gúdɔ̀ |
| 80 | forest | *kúɔ̀ |
| 81 | fruit | *tám´, *kàk |
| 82 | fufu / cornflour | *báìn |
| 83 | goat | *búmì, *dí |
| 84 | grasshopper | *gùnè, *tàŋí |
| 85 | grave | *túɛ̀ |
| 86 | ground | *tíɔ̀, *gɛ̀dí |
| 87 | groundnut | *bèádɛ̀ŋ, *tɔ̀ŋdí, *tɔ̀mbíé |
| 88 | hair | *núŋè |
| 89 | hand | *gúà |
| 90 | hand piano | *dóŋú, *búmɛ̀ |
| 91 | head | *túb` |
| 92 | headpad | *kádù |
| 93 | heart (liver) | *tómí, *tám, *pɔ̀ŋí |
| 94 | heel | *tìŋɔ́, *kìŋɔ̀, *bú |
| 95 | hen / fowl | *gúɛ̀, *búɛ́ |
| 96 | hill / mountain | *kúánì, *kák` |
| 97 | hoe | *púɛ̀, *túŋà |
| 98 | honey | *dúò |
| 99 | horn | *dáùŋ |
| 100 | hunger | *dúŋɛ̀ |
| 101 | husband | *dómù |
| 102 | illness | *kúákí, *dàŋ, *dúàp |
| 103 | intestines | *túkɔ́, *dùán |
| 104 | iron | *kát`, *túák, *búkó |
| 105 | journey | *dúdɛ̀, *bòdìŋ, *tók` |
| 106 | knee | *dútì |
| 107 | kola | *bíè |
| 108 | ladder | *kúkɔ̀ |
| 109 | lake | *múá, *dúkɛ̀, *ŋúè |
| 110 | leaf | *púkɔ̀, *gìáŋ |
| 111 | leg | *póní, *kúɔ̀ |
| 112 | length | *díàp |
| 113 | leprosy | *kùt, *tùàtì |
| 114 | lizard (DROP) | |
| 115 | locust | *gòmí, *bíŋɛ̀ |
| 116 | madness | *dúkà, *gènò |
| 117 | maggot | *gúdì, *núŋɔ́ |
| 118 | maize | *tɔ̀p, *gàté, *táŋ´ |
| 119 | man | *gùdí, *dúmà |
| 120 | market | *bónɛ́, *dɔ́ín |
| 121 | marrow | *bɔ́ŋ`, *kóŋé, *dúáŋ |
| 122 | mat | *gámò |
| 123 | medicine | *púɔ̀, *tíɛ́ |
| 124 | message | *tɔ́mù |
| 125 | money | *kúà |
| 126 | monkey | *kàín |
| 127 | moon | *dɔ́ŋ`, *ŋúè |
| 128 | mortar | *kúŋɛ́, *gúŋì |
| 129 | mother | *túmì, *nòní |
| 130 | mouth | *dúɔ̀ |
| 131 | mushroom | *gúkɔ̀, *bók, *dúká |
| 132 | name | *dítɔ́, *gíd´ |
| 133 | navel | *tɔ́ŋ |
| 134 | neck / throat | *tɔ́ŋú, *mɔ́ìŋ, *dɔ̀ŋ |
| 135 | new | *píkɛ̀ |
| 136 | night | *túgɔ́ |
| 137 | nose | *dúì, *tɔ́ŋ |
| 138 | oil | *gúdà |
| 139 | outside | *bɛ́nú |
| 140 | pain | *dàp`, *pɔ́dɔ́ |
| 141 | palm tree | *tóm, *bàŋ |
| 142 | path / road | *dùmó |
| 143 | pepper | *tútɛ́, *gúŋè, *báŋ |
| 144 | person | *gúdɔ̀ |
| 145 | pestle | *káŋù, *túké |
| 146 | pit | *búkɛ̀ |
| 147 | place | *dúkɛ̀ |
| 148 | plantain | *gòm, *púgà, *bók |
| 149 | porcupine | *gùmà, *nìnták |
| 150 | pot | *tɔ̀ìn, *kúgè, *tùà |
| 151 | potato | *dàtú |
| 152 | poverty | *dánì, *púpè |
| 153 | pumpkin (edible) | *búkò |
| 154 | pus | *púbì, *dúdɛ̀ |
| 155 | rain | *gúdɔ́ |
| 156 | rainy season | *bìŋɔ̀ |
| 157 | Raffia | *dúkà, *kàú |
| 158 | rat | *púdɛ̀, *tá` |
| 159 | root | *gáŋì |
| 160 | rope | *bak, *kùdè |
| 161 | salt | *gúàŋ, *túkɛ̀ |
| 162 | sand | *tútɛ́ |
| 163 | sheep | *dùɛ̀ |
| 164 | shoulder | *gɔ́m̀, *bòkà |
| 165 | side / piece | *bát`, *búkè |
| 166 | skin / hide | *gúɔ̀ |
| 167 | slave | *kùtà, *bùkò |
| 168 | smoke | *dúkɛ̀ |
| 169 | snail | *tákɔ̀ |
| 170 | snake | *dúà, *bàm |
| 171 | song | *dúmɛ́, *dìàŋ |
| 172 | spear / war | *góŋà |
| 173 | spoon | *tàs, *dúk` |
| 174 | squirrel (tree) | *túà, *gùà, *bùkò |
| 175 | squirrel (ground) | *tùŋà, *dùm / bònì, *kàdà / gùà |
| 176 | star | *dínɛ̀, *bɛ́dà, *tòá |
| 177 | stick | *dùŋà, *bàŋ, *túɛ́ |
| 178 | sting | *túà |
| 179 | stone 1 | *gòkɔ̀ |
| 180 | stone 2 | *tíá, *gúkà |
| 181 | stool | *kúkɔ̀, *dáŋ, *túé |
| 182 | strength | *díáká |
| 183 | sun | *túì, *dù, *ní |
| 184 | tail | *kɔ́nì, *táì |
| 185 | tear | *túɛ̀k |
| 186 | termite | *góké, *dúà |
| 187 | thing | *púà, *tíà |
| 188 | thorn | *dúŋɔ̀, *pàpí |
| 189 | tick | *kúpɔ́, *túáŋɔ̀ |
| 190 | time | *dúŋì, *núŋɔ́ |
| 191 | tobacco | *tíábáŋ, *dɔ̀bàké |
| 192 | today | *dánì |
| 193 | tongue | *dɔ́mì, *dídè |
| 194 | tooth | *túŋɔ̀, *góìk |
| 195 | trap | *tám`, *túák |
| 196 | tree | *kák`, *tíɛ́ |
| 197 | trouble | *gókɛ̀, *tútɛ̀ |
| 198 | trunk (of tree) | *tíŋɛ̀, *kák` |
| 199 | urine | *dúídò |
| 200 | valley | *búkɔ̀, *bàd, *kɔ́ín |
| 201 | vein | *gáŋ` |
| 202 | village | *tɔ́k, *bɔ́ì, *nák |
| 203 | voice | *gúà, *dìɔ̀ |
| 204 | water | *múɔ̀ |
| 205 | wildness (DROP) | |
| 206 | wind | *púɛ́pɔ̀, *kóŋgì |
| 207 | wine | *dúkè |
| 208 | wing | *gúò, *gáù |
| 209 | work | *pódà |
| 210 | wife | *dùí, *gúŋì, *kìí |
| 211 | woman | *dùɛ̀ní, *búdì, *kìí |
| 212 | xylophone | *dáŋí, *kàì |
| 213 | yam | *dúmɛ̀ |
| 214 | yam (sweet) | *dímɔ́ |
| 215 | yesterday | *dúɔ́nì |
| 216 | youth | *gúkà |
| 217 | accompany, to | *dùmɔ́, *bákín` |
| 218 | admire, to | *túɛ́m, *kò |
| 219 | answer / agree, to | *bóénì |
| 220 | ascend, to | *kúkɔ̀ |
| 221 | ask, to | *búpì |
| 222 | assemble / gather, to | *tìŋɔ̀, *kɔ́ŋi, *dúŋì |
| 223 | avoid, to | *bám`, *dúmà |
| 224 | (be) bad, to | *bɛ́pò |
| 225 | bake in ashes, to | *pòmɛ́, *tùá |
| 226 | bark, to | *búbà |
| 227 | beat, to | *tám`, *bútà |
| 228 | beg, to | *dɔ́ìn |
| 229 | begin, to | *dìmè, *kákɛ̀ |
| 230 | bend (over), to | *gúmá, *dúkè |
| 231 | (become) big, to | *dú, *gákɔ̀ |
| 232 | (give) birth, to | *búítɛ̀, *dí |
| 233 | bite, to | *dɔ́mù, *dúì |
| 234 | (become) bitter, to | *dúì |
| 235 | (become) black, to | *pínɔ̀, *díŋe |
| 236 | (become) blind, to | *pɛ̀pò |
| 237 | blow (mouth), to | *póɛ́p`, *tɔ́ŋ`, *dùé |
| 238 | blow (nose), to | *mɪ̀t, *pámɔ́ |
| 239 | break, to | *búkɛ̀, *kóɛ̀m |
| 240 | break wind, to | *bùtɛ, *tɪ́ɛ̀ |
| 241 | breathe, to | *dùà |
| 242 | burn, roast, to | *nùkɔ́, *tùàŋ |
| 243 | (get) burnt, to | *púmì, *kú` |
| 244 | buy, to | *dúénì |
| 245 | call / read, to | *tɔ́ŋá, *tíɔ̀ |
| 246 | carry (on head), to | *bòàkí |
| 247 | carve, to | *kɔ́m, *túpà |
| 248 | catch, to | *kúɔ̀ |
| 249 | choose, to | *túkɔ̀ |
| 250 | (get) clean / dawn, to | *dáìn, *dúɔ̀n |
| 251 | clear away (grass), to | *túámɛ̀ |
| 252 | come, to | *gùí, *bɔ̀ìn, *dúè |
| 253 | cook, to | *kùnà, *námì |
| 254 | cough, to | *kɔ́dì |
| 255 | count, to | *táŋ` |
| 256 | cover, to | *títɔ̀, *báŋɔ̀ |
| 257 | crawl, to | *gàndì |
| 258 | cross (river, road), to | *dìŋá |
| 259 | cry, to | *dèí, *gákì |
| 260 | cut down, to | *gúdɛ̀ |
| 261 | cut loose, to | *kák`, *tíádì, *dùàtì |
| 262 | dance, to | *bínɔ̀ |
| 263 | deceive, to | *dópà, *bòák |
| 264 | descend, to | *túkɔ̀ |
| 265 | die, to | *kúbɔ̀, *púó |
| 266 | dip (DROP), to | |
| 267 | divide, to | *gìàp, *dùá |
| 268 | drink, to | *nú`, *mú |
| 269 | drip, to | *tímà |
| 270 | drive away, to | *dúmà |
| 271 | (become) dry, to | *dúmò |
| 272 | eat 1, to | *dúɛ̀ |
| 273 | eat 2 (sth. to chew), to | *dámɔ̀, *tàm |
| 274 | enter, to | *dí`, *kúnɛ̀ |
| 275 | exchange, to | *kúɔ́pì |
| 276 | exit, to | *pú`, *mùá, *tíà |
| 277 | extinguish, to | *dímɔ̀ |
| 278 | fal, to | *búà, *gù, *pénà |
| 279 | fear, to | *pánì, *tíŋɔ́ |
| 280 | feed, to | *dídɔ̀ |
| 281 | find, search for, to | *káŋù |
| 282 | finish (tr.), to | *màí |
| 283 | finish (intr.), to | *màí |
| 284 | fling up earth, to | *túpà |
| 285 | fly, to | *tàìn, *pɛ́`, *dúá |
| 286 | fold, to | *gíàdí, *búkè |
| 287 | fry, to | *káŋì |
| 288 | get, to | *kídà |
| 289 | go, to | *dùɔ́, *gɔ̀í |
| 290 | (be) good, to | *dúpà, *báŋù |
| 291 | grind, to | *gùá, *bùá |
| 292 | groan / growl, to | *dùmá |
| 293 | harvest, to | *kúɛ̀k |
| 294 | hate, to | *bàní |
| 295 | hear, to | *dúà |
| 296 | heat, to | *dùmà, *nòm |
| 297 | heavy, to | *dúdɔ̀ |
| 298 | help, to | *gàm, *dàm |
| 299 | hide, to | *dɔ́nè |
| 300 | hit, to | *kúé, *dúiàk, *gád` |
| 301 | hold, to | *gàdɛ̀ |
| 302 | hook (hang), to | *dúŋ` |
| 303 | hunt, to | *búɛ̀m |
| 304 | imitate, to | *bùɛ́k, *tímà |
| 305 | become, to | *dɔ́mɛ̀ |
| 306 | itch, to | *dútɔ̀ |
| 307 | jump, to | *tàkí |
| 308 | kill, to | *dúèk |
| 309 | kneel, to | *gúkè, *dùdá |
| 310 | knot, to | *túŋ`, *páŋà, *ká |
| 311 | lack, to | *bóà, *gúà, *dánɛ̀ |
| 312 | laugh, to | *túkà |
| 313 | leave, to | *dùɔ̀, *túè, *nùdí |
| 314 | lick, to | *dóàk |
| 315 | lie (down), to | *nìŋɔ́ |
| 316 | live, to | *bòdí, *tíɛ̀, *mò´ |
| 317 | look after, to | *kínà, *dádì |
| 318 | (get) lost, to | *dàtí |
| 319 | (go) mad, to | *díkà, *gèn |
| 320 | make / do, to | *nàí, *gínɔ́ |
| 321 | marry (DROP?), to | |
| 322 | measure, to | *pɛ́kù |
| 323 | meet, to | *kɔ̀ìd, *bò, *bàk |
| 324 | mould, to | *búmà |
| 325 | (become) old, to | *búìn |
| 326 | open, to | *dùké, *nɔ́kà |
| 327 | open up / break open, to | *bòkɛ̀, *bàt |
| 328 | pass, to | *tùá |
| 329 | pay, to | *dàkɔ́ |
| 330 | peg out skin, to | *tòmá, *bàn, *dá |
| 331 | perspire, to | *dùgó |
| 332 | pick up (find sth. lost), to | *bɔ́ŋ`, *kómí |
| 333 | play, to | *dúmɛ̀, *tú` |
| 334 | (be) pleased, to | *táŋ, *dɔ́kí |
| 335 | pluck, to | *dòn, *túkɔ́ |
| 336 | pound, to | *túkò |
| 337 | pour, to | *tútì, *kádì |
| 338 | praise, to | *kɔ̀k, *gádí |
| 339 | press, to | *dúkɛ̀, *tàm |
| 340 | pull (up), to | *gùp, *tùŋé |
| 341 | put, to | *tɔ́mù, *dɛ̀mɔ̀, *kóŋ` |
| 342 | put away, to | *tàk, *dùdó |
| 343 | read, to | *dàŋ, *tɔ́ŋà |
| 344 | (be) red; ripen, to | *báŋ` |
| 345 | refuse, to | *dùk´, *tɔ́nì |
| 346 | resemble, to | *púdé |
| 347 | rest, to | *dùá |
| 348 | return, to | *káɛ́, *bùnà |
| 349 | rise up, to | *dùá, *kók |
| 350 | rot, to | *pòàdí, *tú` |
| 351 | rub, to | *dúɔ̀k, *kídé, *tùɔ̀dɛ́ |
| 352 | rub off, to | *dúkè, *túkó |
| 353 | rule, judge, to | *tákɔ̀ |
| 354 | run, to | *níŋà |
| 355 | scrape, to | *kómɛ̀, *dúèŋ |
| 356 | see, to | *kòkɔ́ |
| 357 | seize, to | *tàkɔ́, *báŋé |
| 358 | sell, to | *bǎdé, *pìéná |
| 359 | send, to | *túmò |
| 360 | sew, to | *tát`, *tɔ́mí |
| 361 | sharpen, to | *tópɛ̀ |
| 362 | shine, to | *báŋì |
| 363 | shoot, to | *túmɛ̀ |
| 364 | (become) short, to | *túmɛ̀, *kúpɛ́ |
| 365 | (become) sick, to | *dáŋ`, *kúák |
| 366 | show, to | *dùɔ̀ní |
| 367 | sift, to | *tìàkɛ́ |
| 368 | (be) silent, to | *túmé, *díà |
| 369 | sing, to | *dúmɛ̀ |
| 370 | sink, to | *mɛ́dì, *tók` |
| 371 | skin, to | *dùɛ́ |
| 372 | sleep, to | *bóŋì |
| 373 | (be) slippery / slide, to | *dúɛ́nì, *dá |
| 374 | smell, to | *dùɛ̀mí |
| 375 | snore, to | *kùá |
| 376 | speak, to | *dúátì, *gàŋí |
| 377 | spit, to | *túɔ̀ |
| 378 | split, to | *bàdì, *tánì, *dùák |
| 379 | spoil, to | *bɔ̀pá |
| 380 | spread; dry, to | *dá, *tàŋ |
| 381 | squeeze, to | *kámì, *nùká |
| 382 | stab, to | *túkɔ̀ |
| 383 | stand, to | *túɔ́mì |
| 384 | steal, to | *tɔ́ŋ`, *dók` |
| 385 | sting, to | *túà |
| 386 | (become), to | *táù, *gók |
| 387 | suck, to | *núŋà |
| 388 | (be) sufficient, to | *kɔ́ìn, *dɔ̀m |
| 389 | swallow, to | *mìɛ́ |
| 390 | swear (deny, refuse), to | *kàní, *gúkɔ |
| 391 | sweep, to | *dútà |
| 392 | swell, to | *mùdɔ́ |
| 393 | swing, to | *dòŋí, *gùàŋá, *mìɛ̀ |
| 394 | take, to | *píɛ̀, *dùɛ́ |
| 395 | tear, to | *tát`, *bát` |
| 396 | tell, to | *pɔ́kì, *dàŋí |
| 397 | tell (a story), to | *dàí, *mòá |
| 398 | thatch, to | *dútá, *púè |
| 399 | think, to | *kùàk, *mɔ̀ŋí |
| 400 | throw (DROP), to | |
| 401 | throw away, to | *màkí |
| 402 | tie (up), to | *kúdɔ̀, *túŋ` |
| 403 | tie together (DROP), to | *kúdɔ̀ |
| 404 | (be) tired, to | *búdɔ̀ |
| 405 | touch, to | *kòm`, *màmí |
| 406 | travel, to | *bòí, *dùdɛ́ |
| 407 | tremble, to | *túŋì |
| 408 | try, to | *mómɔ̀ |
| 409 | turn, to | *bɛ̀nì, *kɔ̀mè |
| 410 | twist / wring, to | *púkɛ̀, *gáb, *túɔ́ŋì |
| 411 | uproot, to | *túkɔ̀ |
| 412 | urinate, to | *bùó, *díŋɛ̀ |
| 413 | wander about, to | *gánì, *dàká |
| 414 | want / like, to | *kɔ́ŋò, *díá |
| 415 | wash, to | *tùɔ́k |
| 416 | weave, to | *báò |
| 417 | weed, to | *dù, *túɔ́dè |
| 418 | (be) white, to | *púpè |
| 419 | work, to | *pɛ̀àdd, *pùàk |
| 420 | wrap up, to | *dímɛ́, *kádì |
| 421 | write, to | *nìák, *tùmá |
| 422 | yawn, to | *dùàtí, *gá` |
| 423 | one | *mòk |
| 424 | two | *bóà |
| 425 | three | *tád, *tíɔ̀ |
| 426 | four | *kùá, *tùàk |
| 427 | five | *tánì |
| 428 | six | *tùbá |
| 429 | seven | *tùàmbóà |
| 430 | eight | *pàmé |
| 431 | nine | *tàndùò, *búdàmɔ̀k |
| 432 | ten | *gúmɔ̀ |
| 433 | hundred | *bùmà, *gúɛ́ |
| 434 | what? | *gáò, *kòɛ̀ |
| 435 | where? | *páí, *gúáŋ |
| 436 | who? | *dòá |
| 71a | feather | *gúdà, *túŋì |
| 80a | friend | *tɔ́ní, *dɔ́ŋ`, *pún |
| 99a | house | *dáù, *gèŋù |
| 102a | inside | *tɛ́íŋà, *múmɛ̀ |
| 160a | saliva | *túà, *dùè |
| 186a | thief | *dókɔ̀, *tɔ̀ŋ |
| 203a | war | *tám |
| 288a | give, to | *púà, *kùɛ́ |
| 332a | pick fruit, to | *kɔ̀ní |
| 60' | drum | *kák` |
| 106' | knife | *nù |
| 310' | know, to | *kúɛ̀dí |
| 412' | vomit, to | *dàŋɛ̀ |
References edit
- Paulin, Pascale. 1995. Etude comparative des langues du groupe Ring: langues Grassfields de l'ouest, Cameroun. MA thesis, Université Lumière Lyon 2.