Wiktionary

生

See also: 主 and 玍
生 U+751F, 生
CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-751F
← 甞
[U+751E] 		CJK Unified Ideographs 甠 →
[U+7520]
⽣ U+2F63, ⽣
KANGXI RADICAL LIFE
← ⽢
[U+2F62] 		Kangxi Radicals ⽤ →
[U+2F64]

Translingual Edit

Stroke order (Chinese)
 
Stroke order
(Chinese)
 
Stroke order
(Japan)
 

Han character Edit

See images of
Radical 100 生

生 (Kangxi radical 100, 生+0, 5 strokes, cangjie input 竹手一 (HQM), four-corner 25100, composition ⿻𠂉土)

  1. Kangxi radical #100, ⽣.
  2. Shuowen Jiezi radical №215

Derived characters Edit

See also Edit

Further reading Edit

Chinese Wikisource has digitized text of the Kangxi Dictionary entry for 生:

Wikisource


  • KangXi: page 754, character 26
  • Dai Kanwa Jiten: character 21670
  • Dae Jaweon: page 1162, character 4
  • Hanyu Da Zidian (first edition): volume 4, page 2575, character 1
  • Unihan data for U+751F

Chinese Edit

Glyph origin Edit

Historical forms of the character 生
Shang Western Zhou Shuowen Jiezi (compiled in Han) Liushutong (compiled in Ming)
Oracle bone script Bronze inscriptions Small seal script Transcribed ancient scripts
       
Characters in the same phonetic series (生) (Zhengzhang, 2003) 
Old Chinese
猜 *sʰlɯː
輤 *sʰleːns
綪 *sʰleːns, *ʔsreːŋ
倩 *sʰleːns, *sʰleŋs
棈 *sʰleːns
蒨 *sʰeːns
篟 *sʰeːns
生 *sʰleːŋ, *sreŋs
牲 *sreŋ
笙 *sreŋ
甥 *sreŋ
鉎 *sreŋ, *sleːŋ
珄 *sreŋ
鼪 *sreŋ, *sreŋs
猩 *sreŋ, *seːŋ
狌 *sreŋ
眚 *sreŋʔ
貹 *sreŋs
崝 *zreːŋ
精 *ʔsleŋ, *ʔsleŋs
菁 *ʔsleŋ
鶄 *ʔsleŋ, *sʰleːŋ
蜻 *ʔsleŋ, *sʰleːŋ
鼱 *ʔsleŋ
婧 *ʔsleŋ, *zleŋs, *zleŋʔ
睛 *ʔsleŋ, *sʰleŋʔ
箐 *ʔsleŋ
聙 *ʔsleŋ
旌 *ʔsleŋ
清 *sʰleŋ
圊 *sʰleŋ
請 *sʰleŋʔ, *zleŋs, *zleŋ
凊 *sʰleŋs
䝼 *zleŋs, *zleŋ
靚 *zleŋs
情 *zleŋ
晴 *zleŋ
夝 *zleŋ
靜 *zleŋʔ
靖 *zleŋʔ
睲 *seŋʔ, *seːŋs
惺 *seŋʔ, *seːŋ
性 *sleŋs
姓 *sleŋs
靗 *l̥ʰeŋs
鯖 *ʔljeŋ, *sʰleːŋ
青 *sʰleːŋ
靘 *sʰleːŋ, *sʰleːŋs
掅 *sʰleːŋs
胜 *sleːŋ
曐 *sleːŋ
星 *sleːŋ
鮏 *sleːŋ
腥 *seːŋ, *seːŋs
鯹 *seːŋ
醒 *seːŋ, *seːŋʔ, *seːŋs
篂 *seːŋ

Ideogrammic compound (會意): 屮 (“bud”) + 一 (“ground”) – sprouting from the ground.

Etymology 1 Edit

simp. and trad.
 生
alternative forms 𤯓

From Proto-Sino-Tibetan *s-riŋ ~ s-r(j)aŋ (“to live; to be alive; to give birth; raw; green”). Cognate with Burmese ရှင် (hrang, “to live; alive”), Mizo hring (“to bear; to bring forth; to give birth to; green”).

Schuessler (2007) proposes that Proto-Sino-Tibetan *sriŋ is derived from the root *sri (“to exist”) (whence possibly Chinese 體 (OC *r̥ʰiːʔ, “body; shape; form”)) + *-ŋ (“terminative suffix”).

Both level tone and falling tone readings are found in Middle Chinese, but the latter has since been lost and is merged into the level-tone reading in modern dialects.

Related to 青 (OC *sʰleːŋ, “blue-green”), 蒼 (OC *sʰaːŋ, *sʰaːŋʔ, “dark blue; deep green”).

Derivatives: 性 (OC *sleŋs, “nature; character; personality; quality”), 姓 (OC *sleŋs, “family name”).

Pronunciation 1 Edit

Note:
  • saang1 - colloquial;
  • sang1 - literary.
  • Gan
    • Note:
    • sang1 - colloquial;
    • sen1 - literary.
  • Hakka
    • Note:
    • Sixian:
      • sâng - colloquial;
      • sên - literary.
    • Meixian:
      • sang1 - colloquial;
      • sên1 - literary;
      • xiên1 - in 生理 (“business”).
  • Jin
  • Min Bei
    • Note:
    • sáng, cháng - colloquial;
    • sáing - literary.
  • Min Dong
    • Note:
    • săng - colloquial;
    • chăng - colloquial (“raw”);
    • sĕng - literary.
  • Min Nan
    • Note:
    • siⁿ/seⁿ - colloquial;
    • chhiⁿ/chheⁿ - colloquial (“raw”);
    • seng/sng - literary.
    Note:
    • sên1 - colloquial;
    • cên1 - colloquial (“raw”);
    • sêng1 - literary (“student”).
  • Wu
    • Note:
    • 1san - colloquial;
    • 1sen - literary.
  • Xiang
    • Dialectal data
    Variety Location 生
    Mandarin Beijing /ʂəŋ⁵⁵/
    Harbin /ʂəŋ⁴/
    Tianjin /səŋ²¹/
    Jinan /ʂəŋ²¹³/
    Qingdao /ʂəŋ²¹³/
    Zhengzhou /səŋ²⁴/
    Xi'an /səŋ²¹/
    Xining /sə̃⁴⁴/
    Yinchuan /səŋ⁴⁴/
    Lanzhou /ʂə̃n³¹/
    Ürümqi /sɤŋ⁴⁴/
    Wuhan /sən⁵⁵/
    Chengdu /sən⁵⁵/
    Guiyang /sen⁵⁵/
    Kunming /sə̃⁴⁴/
    Nanjing /sən³¹/
    Hefei /sən²¹/
    Jin Taiyuan /səŋ¹¹/
    Pingyao /səŋ¹³/
    /ʂʐ̩e̞¹³/
    Hohhot /sə̃ŋ³¹/
    Wu Shanghai /səŋ⁵³/
    Suzhou /sã⁵⁵/
    Hangzhou /sen³³/
    Wenzhou /siɛ³³/
    Hui Shexian /sʌ̃³¹/
    /sɛ³¹/
    Tunxi /ɕiɛ¹¹/
    Xiang Changsha /sən³³/
    Xiangtan /siẽ³³/
    /sən³³/
    Gan Nanchang /sɑŋ⁴²/
    /sɛn⁴²/ ～意
    Hakka Meixian /saŋ⁴⁴/
    Taoyuan /sɑŋ²⁴/
    Cantonese Guangzhou /sɐŋ⁵³/
    /saŋ⁵³/
    Nanning /saŋ⁵⁵/
    Hong Kong /sɐŋ⁵⁵/
    /saŋ⁵⁵/
    Min Xiamen (Min Nan) /siŋ⁵⁵/
    /sĩ⁵⁵/ ～死
    /t͡sʰĩ⁵⁵/ ～肉
    Fuzhou (Min Dong) /saŋ⁴⁴/
    Jian'ou (Min Bei) /saiŋ⁵⁴/ 學～
    /t͡sʰaŋ⁵⁴/ ～熟
    Shantou (Min Nan) /seŋ³³/
    /sẽ³³/
    /t͡sʰẽ³³/
    Haikou (Min Nan) /seŋ²³/
    /sɔŋ²³/
    /tɛ²³/ ～活
    /sɛ²³/ 不熟
    Rime
    Character 生 生
    Reading # 1/2 2/2
    Initial (聲) 生 (21) 生 (21)
    Final (韻) 庚 (109) 庚 (109)
    Tone (調) Level (Ø) Departing (H)
    Openness (開合) Open Open
    Division (等) II II
    Fanqie 所庚切 所敬切
    Baxter sraeng sraengH
    Reconstructions
    Zhengzhang
    Shangfang         		/ʃˠæŋ/ /ʃˠæŋH/
    Pan
    Wuyun         		/ʃᵚaŋ/ /ʃᵚaŋH/
    Shao
    Rongfen         		/ʃaŋ/ /ʃaŋH/
    Edwin
    Pulleyblank         		/ʂaɨjŋ/ /ʂaɨjŋH/
    Li
    Rong         		/ʃɐŋ/ /ʃɐŋH/
    Wang
    Li         		/ʃɐŋ/ /ʃɐŋH/
    Bernard
    Karlgren         		/ʂɐŋ/ /ʂɐŋH/
    Expected
    Mandarin
    Reflex         		shēng shèng
    Expected
    Cantonese
    Reflex         		sang1 sang3
    Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014)
    Character 生 生 生
    Reading # 1/3 2/3 3/3
    Modern
    Beijing
    (Pinyin)         		shēng shēng shēng
    Middle
    Chinese         		‹ sræng › ‹ sræng › ‹ srjæng ›
    Old
    Chinese         		/*sreŋ/ (MC srj- > sr-; or *s.reŋ ?) /*sreŋ/ /*sreŋ/ (or *s.reŋ ?)
    English bear, be born; live fresh, raw bear, be born; live

    Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system:

    * Parentheses "()" indicate uncertain presence;
    * Square brackets "[]" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. *[t] as coda may in fact be *-t or *-p;
    * Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix;
    * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary;

    * Period "." indicates syllable boundary.
    Zhengzhang system (2003)
    Character 生 生
    Reading # 1/2 2/2
    No. 11312 11322
    Phonetic
    component         		生 生
    Rime
    group         		耕 耕
    Rime
    subdivision         		0 0
    Corresponding
    MC rime         		生 生
    Old
    Chinese         		/*sʰleːŋ/ /*sreŋs/

    Definitions Edit

    生

    1. to live; to subsist; to exist
    2. to grow; to develop; to bud
    3. (causative) to bear; to give birth; to bring up; to rear
      他妻子生了一對雙胞胎女孩。 [MSC, trad.]
      他妻子生了一对双胞胎女孩。 [MSC, simp.]
      Tā qīzǐ shēng le yī duì shuāngbāotāi nǚhái. [Pinyin]
      His wife gave birth to twin girls.
    4. to be born; to come into existence
      他生在中國。／他生在中国。  ―  Tā shēng zài zhōngguó.  ―  He was born in China.
    5. pupil; disciple; student
      你作為全日制生必須定期上課。 [MSC, trad.]
      你作为全日制生必须定期上课。 [MSC, simp.]
      Nǐ zuòwèi quánrìzhì shēng bìxū dìngqī shàngkè. [Pinyin]
      As a full-time student, you should attend classes on a regular basis.
    6. (historical) scholar; Confucian scholar
    7. (opera) actor or male character
    8. Short for 先生 (xiānshēng, “gentleman”).
      1. (Cantonese, honorific, suffix) Short for 先生 (xiānshēng, “Mr.”).
        陳生／陈生 [Cantonese]  ―  can4 saang1 [Jyutping]  ―  Mr. Chan
    9. having life; live
      Synonym: 活
      規矩係死嘅，人係生嘅。 [Cantonese, trad.]
      规矩系死嘅，人系生嘅。 [Cantonese, simp.]
      kwai1 geoi2 hai6 sei2 ge3, jan4 hai6 saang1 ge3. [Jyutping]
      Rules are lifeless; humans are not.
      條魚啱啱喺條河度釣上嚟，仲係生嘅。 [Cantonese, trad.]
      条鱼啱啱喺条河度钓上嚟，仲系生嘅。 [Cantonese, simp.]
      tiu4 jyu4-2 ngaam1 ngaam1 hai2 tiu4 ho4 dou6 diu3 soeng5 lai4, zung6 hai6 saang1 ge3. [Jyutping]
      The fish was just caught with a hook and line from the river. It is still alive.
    10. life; existence; being; living
      殺生／杀生  ―  shāshēng  ―  to destroy a life
    11. fresh; not stale
    12. unripe
    13. raw; uncooked
      Antonym: 熟 (shú)
      生洋蔥／生洋葱  ―  shēng yángcōng  ―  raw onions
      我覺得呢塊肉仲係太生。 [Cantonese, trad.]
      我觉得呢块肉仲系太生。 [Cantonese, simp.]
      ngo5 gok3 dak1 ni1 faai3 juk6 zung6 hai6 taai3 saang1. [Jyutping]
      I think this piece of meat is too raw.
    14. (historical ethnography) uncultured; uncultivated; wild; uncivilized; savage
      生黎  ―  shēng Lí  ―  wild Li
    15. strange; unfamiliar
      生人  ―  shēngrén  ―  stranger
    16. mechanically; forcedly
    17. very; quite; extremely
      生怕  ―  shēngpà  ―  to fear; to be afraid of
    18. vivid; strong; forceful
    19. innate; natural; born with
    20. † Original form of 性 (xìng).
    21. living things; organism
    22. livelihood; subsistence
      謀生／谋生  ―  móushēng  ―  to make a living
    23. lifetime; all one's life
      來生／来生  ―  láishēng  ―  afterlife
    24. birthday; anniversary
      慶生／庆生  ―  qìngshēng  ―  to celebrate one's birthday
    25. to bring back to life; to revive; to rescue
    26. to generate; to breed; to create
    27. to manufacture; to produce
    28. to happen; to occur; to take place
    29. to catch (a disease)
      我生了什麼病？／我生了什么病？  ―  Wǒ shēng le shénme bìng?  ―  What disease have I got?
      生蛇 [Hokkien]  ―  seⁿ-chôa [Pe̍h-ōe-jī]  ―  to have shingles
    30. (transitive) to be infested by a parasite
      生跳蚤  ―  shēng tiàozǎo  ―  to be infested with fleas
      生蝨乸／生虱乸 [Cantonese]  ―  saang1 sat1 naa2 [Jyutping]  ―  to be infested with lice
    31. (Buddhism) to go into society; to be reincarnated
    32. (dialectal) to set up; to put in; to settle
    33. to light; to ignite (a fire)
      母親沒有生爐子。／母亲没有生炉子。  ―  Mǔqīn méi yǒu shēng lúzi.  ―  Mother did not light the stove.
    34. a surname
    Synonyms Edit
    Dialectal synonyms of 長 (“(of an organism) to grow; to develop”) [map]
    Variety Location Words
    Classical Chinese 生, 長
    Formal (Written Standard Chinese) 長
    Mandarin Taiwan 長
    Yantai (Muping) 生
    Jinan 長
    Wanrong 長
    Xi'an 長
    Ürümqi 生
    Wuhan 長
    Guilin 長
    Yangzhou 生
    Singapore 長
    Cantonese Guangzhou 生
    Hong Kong 生
    Dongguan 生
    Gan Lichuan 長
    Pingxiang 生
    Hakka Meixian 生
    Miaoli (N. Sixian) 生
    Pingtung (Neipu; S. Sixian) 生
    Hsinchu County (Zhudong; Hailu) 生
    Taichung (Dongshi; Dabu) 生
    Hsinchu County (Qionglin; Raoping) 生
    Jin Taiyuan 長
    Min Dong Fuzhou 生
    Min Nan Xiamen 生
    Quanzhou 生
    Zhangzhou 生
    Taipei 生 GT
    Shantou 生
    Jieyang 生
    Leizhou 生
    Haikou 生
    Wu Suzhou 長
    Ningbo 生
    Wenzhou 生
    Jinhua 生
    Xiang Loudi 生
    Note GT - General Taiwanese (no specific region identified)
    Dialectal synonyms of 生 (“to give birth to”) [map]
    Variety Location Words
    Classical Chinese 生
    Formal (Written Standard Chinese) 生
    Mandarin Taiwan 生
    Yantai (Muping) 生
    Yinchuan 生
    Ürümqi 生
    Wuhan 生
    Singapore 生
    Cantonese Guangzhou 生, 臊
    Hong Kong 生, 臊
    Dongguan 生
    Singapore (Guangfu) 生
    Gan Nanchang 生
    Huizhou Jixi 生
    Jin Taiyuan 生
    Min Bei Jian'ou 洗
    Min Dong Fuzhou 生
    Min Nan Xiamen 生
    Quanzhou 生
    Zhangzhou 生
    Tainan 生
    Singapore (Hokkien) 生
    Manila (Hokkien) 生
    Singapore (Teochew) 生
    Haikou 生
    Wu Shanghai 養 especially of human beings, 生
    Suzhou 養 especially of human beings, 生
    Wenzhou 生
    Jinhua 生
    Xiang Loudi 生
    Dialectal synonyms of 活 (“having life; live”) [map]
    Variety Location Words
    Formal (Written Standard Chinese) 有生
    Mandarin Beijing 活
    Taiwan 活
    Jinan 活
    Xi'an 活
    Wuhan 活
    Chengdu 活
    Guilin 活
    Yangzhou 活
    Hefei 活
    Singapore 活
    Cantonese Guangzhou 生
    Hong Kong 生
    Hong Kong (San Tin Weitou) 生
    Hong Kong (Ting Kok) 生
    Hong Kong (Tung Ping Chau) 生
    Yangjiang 生
    Singapore (Guangfu) 生
    Gan Nanchang 活
    Hakka Meixian 生
    Hong Kong 生
    Senai (Huiyang) 生
    Jin Taiyuan 活
    Min Bei Jian'ou 生
    Min Dong Fuzhou 活
    Min Nan Xiamen 活
    Singapore (Hokkien) 活
    Chaozhou 活
    Bangkok (Teochew) 活
    Johor Bahru (Teochew) 活
    Singapore (Teochew) 活
    Wu Suzhou 活
    Wenzhou 活, 健
    Xiang Changsha 活
    Shuangfeng 活
    Antonyms Edit
    • (uncultured): 熟 (shú)

    Pronunciation 2 Edit

    Definitions Edit

    生

    1. (Cantonese) Only used in 架生

    Etymology 2 Edit

    simp. and trad.
    		 生

    From Mandarin 上.

    Pronunciation Edit

    Definitions Edit

    生

    1. (music) Cantonese opera gongche notation for the note high do (1̇).
      Synonym: 仩 (shàng) (Kunqu)

    Etymology 3 Edit

    simp. and trad.
    		 生

    Phono-semantic matching of Japanese さん (-san).

    Pronunciation Edit

    Definitions Edit

    生

    1. (Hong Kong, honorific, suffix) -san, when referring to a Japanese person
    Synonyms Edit

    Compounds Edit

    Descendants Edit

    Sino-Xenic (生):
    • → Japanese: 生(しょう) (shō); 生(せい) (sei)
    • → Korean: 생(生) (saeng)
    • → Vietnamese: sinh (生), sanh (生)

    References Edit

    Japanese Edit

    Stroke order (Japan)
     
    Stroke order
    (Japan)
     

    Kanji Edit

    生

    (grade 1 “Kyōiku” kanji)

    Readings Edit

    Compounds Edit

    Compounds

    Etymology 1 Edit

    Kanji in this term
    生
    なま
    Grade: 1
    kun’yomi

    From Old Japanese. Numerous derivatives already in use in the Heian period.[1][2]

    Pronunciation Edit

    Noun Edit

    生(なま) • (nama) 

    1. a raw, uncooked state
      肉(にく)を生(なま)のまま食(た)べると、腹(はら)を壊(こわ)すことがある。
      Niku o nama no mama taberu to, hara o kowasu koto ga aru.
      You may have a stomachache if you eat raw meat.
    2. Short for 生ビール (“draft beer”).

    Prefix Edit

    生(なま) • (nama-) 

    1. (broadcasting) live
      生(なま)演奏(えんそう)
      namaensō
      live performance
    2. fresh, draft
      生(なま)クリーム
      nama kurīmu
      fresh cream
      生(なま)ビール
      nama bīru
      draft beer
    3. raw, uncooked, rare
      生(なま)卵(たまご)
      nama tamago
      a raw egg
    4. natural, unprocessed

    Derived terms Edit

    Derived terms

    Etymology 2 Edit

    Kanji in this term
    生
    せい
    Grade: 1
    on’yomi

    From Middle Chinese 生 (MC sraeng|sraengH, “alive; fresh; raw; unprocessed”).

    Pronunciation Edit

    Noun Edit

    生(せい) • (sei) 

    1. a living
      生(せい)を営(いとな)む
      sei o itonamu
      make a living
    2. life
      Synonym: 命 (inochi)
      生(せい)の喜(よろこ)び
      sei no yorokobi
      the joys of life

    Pronoun Edit

    生(せい) • (sei) 

    1. (humble) I or me, the first person singular (used by males)

    Suffix Edit

    生(せい) • (-sei) 

    1. a student
      中学(ちゅうがく)生(せい)、大学(だいがく)生(せい)、受験(じゅけん)生(せい)
      chūgakusei, daigakusei, jukensei
      middle-school student, university student, test-taking student → examinee
    2. (be) born in
      Antonym: 歿 (botsu, “died in”)
      1950(せんきゅうひゃくごじゅう)年(ねん)生(せい)
      sen-kyūhyaku-gojū-nen sei
      born in 1950

    Derived terms Edit

    Derived terms

    Etymology 3 Edit

    Kanji in this term
    生
    き
    Grade: 1
    kun’yomi

    Likely a contraction from 生き (iki, “life, living; freshness”).[1]

    Pronunciation Edit

    Noun Edit

    生(き) • (ki) 

    1. purity, a lack of any admixture, a state of being undiluted
      ウィスキーを生(き)で飲(の)む
      wisukī o ki de nomu
      drink whiskey straight

    Prefix Edit

    生(き) • (ki-) 

    1. unrefined
      生(き)糸(いと)
      kiito
      raw silk
    2. pure, undefiled, unadulterated
      生(き)娘(むすめ)
      kimusume
      innocent young girl

    Derived terms Edit

    Derived terms

    Etymology 4 Edit

    Kanji in this term
    生
    しょう
    Grade: 1
    goon

    From Middle Chinese 生 (MC sraeng|sraengH). The 呉音 (goon) reading, so likely the initial borrowing from Middle Chinese.

    Pronunciation Edit

    Affix Edit

    生(しょう) • (shō) 

    1. life; lifetime
    Derived terms Edit
    Derived terms

    See also Edit

    References Edit

    1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1988, 国語大辞典（新装版） (Kokugo Dai Jiten, Revised Edition) (in Japanese), Tōkyō: Shogakukan
    2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2006, 大辞林 (Daijirin), Third Edition (in Japanese), Tōkyō: Sanseidō, →ISBN

    Korean Edit

    Etymology Edit

    From Middle Chinese 生 (MC sraeng|sraengH).

    Historical readings

    Pronunciation Edit

    Hanja Edit

    Korean Wikisource has texts containing the hanja:

    Wikisource

    生 (eumhun 날 생 (nal saeng))

    1. Hanja form? of 생 (“raw; uncooked”).
    2. Hanja form? of 생 (“of life; to be born”).
    3. Hanja form? of 생 (“to produce”).

    Compounds Edit

    Compounds

    References Edit

    • 국제퇴계학회 대구경북지부 (國際退溪學會 大邱慶北支部) (2007). Digital Hanja Dictionary, 전자사전／電子字典. [2]

    Okinawan Edit

    Kanji Edit

    生

    (grade 1 “Kyōiku” kanji)

    Readings Edit

    Compounds Edit

    Vietnamese Edit

    Han character Edit

    生: Hán Việt readings: sinh[1][2][3][4], sanh (師(sư)庚(canh)切(thiết))[3][4]
    生: Nôm readings: sanh[1][2][5][4][6][7], siêng[1][3][5][4][6][7], sinh[1][2][3][4][7], xinh[1][2][3][5], xênh[1][3][5], sống[1], xanh[1]

    1. chữ Hán form of sinh (“to produce; to yield; to give birth to”).
    2. chữ Hán form of sanh (“to be born”).
    3. Nôm form of siêng (“dilligent; assiduous”).

    Compounds Edit

    Compounds derived from sinh
    Compounds derived from siêng

    References Edit

    1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Nguyễn (2014).
    2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Nguyễn et al. (2009).
    3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Trần (2004).
    4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Bonet (1899).
    5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Hồ (1976).
    6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Génibrel (1898).
    7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Taberd & Pigneau de Béhaine (1838).
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