Appendix:Middle English Swadesh list

This is a Swadesh list of words in Middle English, compared with definitions in English.

Presentation

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For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.

American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.

List

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No. English Middle English
Englisch
IPA
pronunciation
1 I I , itʃ, ik
2 you (singular) thou θuː
3 he he heː
4 we we weː
5 you (plural) yow juː
6 they thei, they, þei, þæȝe, he θɛi̯, heː
7 this this, thisse, thes, þis, þes θis, θiːs, θeːs
8 that that, thatte, þat, þæt θat, θaːt
9 here her heːr, hɛr
10 there there, tharre, therre, theare, thir, thar θɛːr, θɛr
11 who who ʍɔː, ʍoː
12 what what, hwat, hwæt, qwhat ʍat
13 where wher, hwer, qwher, whar, where, huer ʍɛr, ʍɛːr
14 when whanne, whenne, hwanne, hwænne, whane ˈʍan(ə), ˈʍɛn(ə)
15 how how, hou, hu huː
16 not ne, nought , nɔu̯xt, nɔt, nat
17 all all, al, æl, alle al
18 many many, mani, maniȝ, moni, mony ˈmaniː, ˈmɔniː
19 some som, somme, some, sum, summe sum
20 few fewe ˈfɛu̯(ə)
21 other other, oþer, oðer, othere ˈɔðər, ˈoːðər
22 one oon, oo ɔːn, ɔː
23 two two twɔː
24 three thre θreː, θriː
25 four four fɔur
26 five five fiːv(ə)
27 big large, larche, largh, grete, gret, greet ˈlaːrdʒ(ə), ˈlardʒ(ə), ɡrɛːt
28 long long, longe, lang, lange lɔnɡ, lanɡ
29 wide brod, brood, brad, wyd, wide brɔːd, wiːd
30 thick thikke, thykke, thik, þikke ˈθik(ə)
31 heavy hevy, hevi ˈhɛːviː, ˈhɛviː
32 small smal, small, smæl, smalle smal
33 short schort, short, shorte, schorte ʃɔrt
34 narrow narwe ˈnarɔu̯, ˈnarwə
35 thin thinne, thin, thunne, thenne, þinne ˈθin(ə)
36 woman womman, wif ˈwuman, wiːf
37 man (male) wer, were, gome, man, manne wɛr, ˈɡum(ə), ˈɡoːm(ə), man
38 man (human) man, manne, persoun, persoune man, pɛrˈsuːn
39 child child, barn tʃiːld, bɛrn, barn
40 wife wif wiːf
41 husband husbonde ˈhuzbɔnd(ə), ˈhuzband(ə)
42 mother moder ˈmoːdər, ˈmoːðər
43 father fader ˈfadər, ˈfaðər
44 animal beeste, animal, der, dere, deor ˈbɛːst(ə), aniˈmaːl, deːr
45 fish fisch fiʃ
46 bird fowel, brid fuːl, ˈfuːəl, brid
47 dog hound huːnd
48 louse lous luːs
49 snake snake ˈsnaːk(ə)
50 worm worm, worme, wurm, warm, wirm wirm, wurm
51 tree tre treː
52 forest wald, frith, frið, fyrthe, forest wald, friθ, ˈfɔrɛst
53 stick stikke ˈstik(ə)
54 fruit frute, fruct, fruit, ovet, ofet friu̯t, ˈɔːvɛt
55 seed seed sɛːd
56 leaf blade, blaid, lefe, leef blaːd, blad, lɛːf
57 root rote roːt
58 bark (of a tree) rind, rinde, bark riːnd, rind, bark
59 flower flour, blosme fluːr, ˈblɔsmə, ˈblɔsəm
60 grass gras, grasse, gers ɡras, ɡraːs, ɡɛrs
61 rope rop, line rɔːp, liːn(ə)
62 skin hide, hüde, skinne, skin, skinn hiːd, skin
63 meat flesh, flesch, flesche, flæsce, fless, fleische flɛːʃ, flɛʃ
64 blood blood, bloud, blod, bloode bloːd
65 bone bon bɔːn
66 fat (noun) fatte, fat fat, faːt
67 egg ei, ey, æȝe, egge, eg ɛi̯, ɛɡ
68 horn horn hɔrn, hoːrn
69 tail teil, tayl, tail tɛi̯l
70 feather fether, feþer, fedder ˈfɛðər, ˈfɛdər
71 hair her hɛːr, heːr
72 head heed, pate hɛːd, ˈhɛvəd, ˈpaːt(ə), ˈpat(ə)
73 ear ere ˈɛːr(ə)
74 eye eie ˈɛi̯(ə), ˈiː(ə)
75 nose nose, nos, nosse, nosu ˈnɔːz(ə)
76 mouth mouth, mouþ, muþ, mouthe, muð, mouþe muːθ
77 tooth tothe, toð, tooth, toþ toːθ
78 tongue tonge ˈtunɡ(ə)
79 fingernail nayl, nail, neil nɛi̯l
80 foot fot foːt
81 leg schanke, schonke, schank, leg, legge ˈʃank(ə), lɛɡ
82 knee kne kneː, kniu̯
83 hand hand, hond, hande hand, hɔnd, hɔːnd
84 wing winge, wing, wynge, wyng ˈwinɡ(ə)
85 belly bouk, bouke, buk, bely, bealy buːk, ˈbɛliː
86 guts therm, tharm, þearm, þerm, guttes, gutes θɛrm, θarm, ˈɡutis
87 neck hals, halce, heals, halse, nekke, necke hals, ˈnɛk(ə)
88 back rigge, rygge, rig, bak, bakke ˈridʒ(ə), ˈbak(ə)
89 breast brest, breoste, breste ˈbrɛːst, ˈbrøːst
90 heart herte ˈhɛrt(ə)
91 liver lyvere ˈlivər
92 to drink drinken, drynken, drinke ˈdrinkən
93 to eat eten ˈɛːtən
94 to bite biten, byten, bite ˈbiːtən
95 to suck souken ˈsuːkən
96 to spit spitten, spitte ˈspitən
97 to vomit spewen, *recchen, vomiten ˈspiu̯ən, ˈrɛtʃən, ˈrɛːtʃən, ˈvɔmitən
98 to blow blowen ˈblɔu̯ən
99 to breathe brethen, breþen, brethe ˈbrɛːðən
100 to laugh laughen ˈlau̯xən, ˈlaːxən
101 to see seen, sen, seon, sein, see ˈseːn
102 to hear heren, hæren, heoren, hearen, hieren, here ˈheːrən, ˈhɛːrən
103 to know witen, witten, knowen, knawen, kno, kennen, kenne, cunnen, can ˈwitən, ˈknɔu̯ən, ˈkɛnən, ˈkunən
104 to think thinken, thenchen, þenchen, thinke ˈθinkən, ˈθɛntʃən
105 to smell smellen, smillen, smullen, stynken ˈsmɛlən, ˈsmilən, ˈstinkən
106 to fear agasten, dreden ˈaɡastən, ˈdrɛːdən, ˈdreːdən
107 to sleep slepen, sleepen, slæpen, slepe ˈsleːpən
108 to live lyven ˈlivən
109 to die sterven, sterfen, steorfen, deyen, dien, deye ˈstɛrvən, ˈdɛi̯ən, ˈdiːən
110 to kill sleyen, slen, killen, kille, quellen, quelle ˈslɛi̯ən, ˈslɛːn, ˈkilən, ˈkwɛlən
111 to fight fighten, fisten, fehten, fiȝten, feghten ˈfixtən, ˈfɛxtən
112 to hunt hunten, huntien, hounten ˈhuntən
113 to hit hitten, hutten, hetten, hitte ˈhitən
114 to cut cutten, kitten, kytten, hewen, hæwen, hewe, scheren, ssere, shere ˈkutən, ˈkitən, ˈhɛu̯ən, ˈʃɛːrən
115 to split cleven, parten, parte, sonderen, sondren, sondre ˈkleːvən, ˈpartən, ˈsund(ə)rən
116 to stab percen, perce, stiken, stikken, sticken, stingen, stinge, priken, pricken, prike ˈpeːrsən, ˈstikən, ˈstinɡən, ˈprikən
117 to scratch cracchen, scratten, scratte, scrapen, scrape ˈkratʃən, ˈskratən, ˈskraːpən
118 to dig graven, delven, diggen, digen ˈɡraːvən, ˈdɛlvən, ˈdiɡən
119 to swim swymmen ˈswimən
120 to fly flien, fliȝe, flyen, flen ˈfliːən, ˈfleːn
121 to walk gangen, gongen, gon, goon, goen, walken, wenden ˈɡaːnɡən, ˈɡanɡən, ɡɔːn, ˈwalkən, ˈwɛndən
122 to come comen, cumen ˈkumən
123 to lie (as in a bed) lien, liggen, lyggen, liȝȝe, lie ˈliːən, ˈlidʒən
124 to sit sitten, citten, zitten, siten, sitte ˈsitən
125 to stand standen, stonden, stonde ˈstɔːndən, ˈstandən
126 to turn (intransitive) turnen, tournen, tornen, turne ˈturnən
127 to fall fallen, fellen, falle ˈfalən
128 to give yeven, yiven, ȝeven, given, yeve, give ˈjɛːvən, ˈjiːvən, ˈɡiːvən
129 to hold holden, halden, helden, hælden, healden, holde, halde, taken ˈhɔːldən, ˈhaːldən, ˈhɛːldən, ˈtaːkən
130 to squeeze wryngen, compressen ˈwrinɡən, kɔmˈprɛsən
131 to rub rubben, rudden ˈrubən, ˈrudən
132 to wash wasshen ˈwaʃən
133 to wipe wipen ˈwiːpən
134 to pull pullen, pollen, pulle, drawen, draȝen, drayen, drawe ˈpulən, ˈdrau̯ən
135 to push schoven, thresten, thristen, thrusten, thriste ˈʃuːvən, ˈʃuvən, ˈθrɛstən, ˈθristən, ˈθrustən
136 to throw werpen, throwen, þrowen, þrowȝen, thrawen, throwe ˈwɛrpən, ˈwarpən, ˈθrɔu̯ən
137 to tie teyen, binden, fasten, fastnen ˈtɛi̯ən, ˈtiːən, ˈfastən, ˈfastnən
138 to sew sewen, sowen, sue ˈsɛu̯ən, ˈsɔu̯ən, ˈsɛu̯ən
139 to count counten, compten, tellen ˈkuːntən, ˈkɔntən, ˈtɛlən
140 to say quethen, seien, speken ˈkwɛːðən, ˈkwɛːdən, ˈsɛi̯ən, ˈspɛːkən
141 to sing singen ˈsinɡən
142 to play pleyen ˈplɛi̯ən
143 to float fleten ˈfleːtən
144 to flow flowen, yeten ˈflɔu̯ən, ˈjeːtən
145 to freeze fresen, congelen ˈfreːzən, kɔnˈdʒɛːlən
146 to swell swellen, bolnen ˈswelən, ˈbɔlnən
147 sun sonne ˈsun(ə)
148 moon mone ˈmoːn(ə)
149 star sterre ˈstɛr(ə)
150 water water ˈwatər
151 rain reyn, rayn, rein, rain, reyne rɛi̯n
152 river flod, strem, ryver floːd, strɛːm, rivˈɛːr, ˈrivər
153 lake lake, lak, lac, mere, meere, mer ˈlaːk(ə), ˈmeːr(ə)
154 sea see sɛː
155 salt salt salt
156 stone ston stɔːn
157 sand sand saːnd, sand, sɔnd
158 dust dust dust, duːst
159 earth erthe ˈɛrð(ə), ˈɛːrð(ə)
160 cloud cloud, sky kluːd, skiː
161 fog myst miːst, mist
162 sky welken, skew, sky, lift ˈwɛlkən, skiu̯, skiː, lift
163 wind wynd wiːnd
164 snow snow snɔu̯
165 ice is iːs
166 smoke smeke, smeek, smike, smoke, smook, smok smeːk, ˈsmɔːk(ə)
167 fire fyr fiːr
168 ash asshe ˈaʃ(ə)
169 to burn brennen, brinnen, bernen, birnen, byrnen, bern, swithen, swiþen ˈbrɛnən, ˈbɛrnən, ˈbirnən, ˈswiːðən
170 road wey, way, wei, strete, stret, path, paþþe, paþ ˈwɛi̯, ˈstreːt, ˈpaːθ
171 mountain mountayne, mount, hille, hulle, hill muːnˈtɛi̯n(ə), muːnt, hil
172 red red reːd, rɛːd
173 green grene ˈɡreːn(ə)
174 yellow yelow, ȝelowe, ȝelew, ȝelow, yelwe, ȝelwe ˈjɛlɔu̯, ˈjɛlwə
175 white whit ʍiːt
176 black blak, blakke, blacke, blake blaːk, blak
177 night nyght nixt, niːxt
178 day day dɛi̯
179 year yere, yer, ȝere, ȝer, ȝeer, yeer jɛːr
180 warm warm warm, wɛrm
181 cold cold, chele, chile kɔːld, tʃɛːld, ˈtʃɛːl(ə)
182 full ful, full, fol, folle, fulle ful
183 new newe, neue, new, neowe, niwe ˈniu̯(ə)
184 old old, olde, ald, oulde, alde, eld, elde ɔːld, aːld, ɛːld
185 good good ɡoːd
186 bad yvel, badde, bad ˈivəl, ˈuvəl, ˈeːvəl, ˈɛvəl
187 rotten foule, foul, fowle, ful, roten, rotyn fuːl, ˈrɔtən
188 dirty unclene, unclen, baudy, baudi, bawdy, hory, hori unˈklɛːn(ə), ˈbau̯diː, ˈhɔːriː
189 straight right, ryght, riȝt, riht, streight, streiȝt, streȝt rixt, strɛi̯xt
190 round rounde, round, rownde, rownd ˈruːnd(ə)
191 sharp (as a knife) scharp, scharpe, sharpe, sharp, ssarpe, kene, keene ʃarp
192 dull (as a knife) blont, blunt, dul, dulle, dol, dolle blunt, dul, dɔl
193 smooth smethe, smothe, even, euen, evene, flat, flatte ˈsmeːð(ə), ˈsmoːð(ə), ˈeːvən, flat
194 wet wet, wete, wette, wæt, moist, moiste wɛt, wɛːt, ˈmɔi̯st(ə)
195 dry drye, drie, dryȝe, dry, ser, sere, seere ˈdriː(ə), sɛːr
196 correct right, ryght, riȝt, riht, trewe, trew, true, sothe, soth, sooth, soþ rixt, riːxt, ˈtriu̯(ə), soːθ
197 near nere, ner, neor, neer, neygh, nygh, nye, nyȝ neːr, nøːr, nɛi̯x, niːx
198 far fer, ferre, fere fɛr
199 right right, ryght, riȝt, riht rixt, riːxt
200 left left, lift, lefte, lifte lift, lɛft
201 at on, onne, at, et ɔn, at
202 in in in,
203 with mid, mithe, wiþ, with mid, mið, wiθ, wið
204 and and and, an
205 if if, iffe, ȝif if, jif
206 because for, sithe, sithen, sin, as, bicause fɔr, ˈsið(ə), ˈsiðən, sin, as, biˈkau̯z
207 name name ˈnaːm(ə)
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