Appendix:Middle English Swadesh list
This is a Swadesh list of words in Middle English, compared with definitions in English.
Presentation edit
- For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
List edit
| No. | English | Middle English Englisch |
IPA pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I | I | iː, itʃ, ik |
| 2 | you (singular) | thou | θuː |
| 3 | he | he | heː |
| 4 | we | we | weː |
| 5 | you (plural) | yow | juː |
| 6 | they | thei, they, þei, þæȝe, he | θɛi̯, heː |
| 7 | this | this, thisse, thes, þis, þes | θis, θiːs, θeːs |
| 8 | that | that, thatte, þat, þæt | θat, θaːt |
| 9 | here | her | heːr, hɛr |
| 10 | there | there, tharre, therre, theare, thir, thar | θɛːr, θɛr |
| 11 | who | who | ʍɔː, ʍoː |
| 12 | what | what, hwat, hwæt, qwhat | ʍat |
| 13 | where | wher, hwer, qwher, whar, where, huer | ʍɛr, ʍɛːr |
| 14 | when | whanne, whenne, hwanne, hwænne, whane | ˈʍan(ə), ˈʍɛn(ə) |
| 15 | how | how, hou, hu | huː |
| 16 | not | ne, nought | nɛ, nɔu̯xt, nɔt, nat |
| 17 | all | all, al, æl, alle | al |
| 18 | many | many, mani, maniȝ, moni, mony | ˈmaniː, ˈmɔniː |
| 19 | some | som, somme, some, sum, summe | sum |
| 20 | few | fewe | ˈfɛu̯(ə) |
| 21 | other | other, oþer, oðer, othere | ˈɔðər, ˈoːðər |
| 22 | one | oon, oo | ɔːn, ɔː |
| 23 | two | two | twɔː |
| 24 | three | thre | θreː, θriː |
| 25 | four | four | fɔur |
| 26 | five | five | fiːv(ə) |
| 27 | big | large, larche, largh, grete, gret, greet | ˈlaːrdʒ(ə), ˈlardʒ(ə), ɡrɛːt |
| 28 | long | long, longe, lang, lange | lɔnɡ, lanɡ |
| 29 | wide | brod, brood, brad, wyd, wide | brɔːd, wiːd |
| 30 | thick | thikke, thykke, thik, þikke | ˈθik(ə) |
| 31 | heavy | hevy, hevi | ˈhɛːviː, ˈhɛviː |
| 32 | small | smal, small, smæl, smalle | smal |
| 33 | short | schort, short, shorte, schorte | ʃɔrt |
| 34 | narrow | narwe | ˈnarɔu̯, ˈnarwə |
| 35 | thin | thinne, thin, thunne, thenne, þinne | ˈθin(ə) |
| 36 | woman | womman, wif | ˈwuman, wiːf |
| 37 | man (male) | wer, were, gome, man, manne | wɛr, ˈɡum(ə), ˈɡoːm(ə), man |
| 38 | man (human) | man, manne, persoun, persoune | man, pɛrˈsuːn |
| 39 | child | child, barn | tʃiːld, bɛrn, barn |
| 40 | wife | wif | wiːf |
| 41 | husband | husbonde | ˈhuzbɔnd(ə), ˈhuzband(ə) |
| 42 | mother | moder | ˈmoːdər, ˈmoːðər |
| 43 | father | fader | ˈfadər, ˈfaðər |
| 44 | animal | beeste, animal, der, dere, deor | ˈbɛːst(ə), aniˈmaːl, deːr |
| 45 | fish | fisch | fiʃ |
| 46 | bird | fowel, brid | fuːl, ˈfuːəl, brid |
| 47 | dog | hound | huːnd |
| 48 | louse | lous | luːs |
| 49 | snake | snake | ˈsnaːk(ə) |
| 50 | worm | worm, worme, wurm, warm, wirm | wirm, wurm |
| 51 | tree | tre | treː |
| 52 | forest | wald, frith, frið, fyrthe, forest | wald, friθ, ˈfɔrɛst |
| 53 | stick | stikke | ˈstik(ə) |
| 54 | fruit | frute, fruct, fruit, ovet, ofet | friu̯t, ˈɔːvɛt |
| 55 | seed | seed | sɛːd |
| 56 | leaf | blade, blaid, lefe, leef | blaːd, blad, lɛːf |
| 57 | root | rote | roːt |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | rind, rinde, bark | riːnd, rind, bark |
| 59 | flower | flour, blosme | fluːr, ˈblɔsmə, ˈblɔsəm |
| 60 | grass | gras, grasse, gers | ɡras, ɡraːs, ɡɛrs |
| 61 | rope | rop, line | rɔːp, liːn(ə) |
| 62 | skin | hide, hüde, skinne, skin, skinn | hiːd, skin |
| 63 | meat | flesh, flesch, flesche, flæsce, fless, fleische | flɛːʃ, flɛʃ |
| 64 | blood | blood, bloud, blod, bloode | bloːd |
| 65 | bone | bon | bɔːn |
| 66 | fat (noun) | fatte, fat | fat, faːt |
| 67 | egg | ei, ey, æȝe, egge, eg | ɛi̯, ɛɡ |
| 68 | horn | horn | hɔrn, hoːrn |
| 69 | tail | teil, tayl, tail | tɛi̯l |
| 70 | feather | fether, feþer, fedder | ˈfɛðər, ˈfɛdər |
| 71 | hair | her | hɛːr, heːr |
| 72 | head | heed, pate | hɛːd, ˈhɛvəd, ˈpaːt(ə), ˈpat(ə) |
| 73 | ear | ere | ˈɛːr(ə) |
| 74 | eye | eie | ˈɛi̯(ə), ˈiː(ə) |
| 75 | nose | nose, nos, nosse, nosu | ˈnɔːz(ə) |
| 76 | mouth | mouth, mouþ, muþ, mouthe, muð, mouþe | muːθ |
| 77 | tooth | tothe, toð, tooth, toþ | toːθ |
| 78 | tongue | tonge | ˈtunɡ(ə) |
| 79 | fingernail | nayl, nail, neil | nɛi̯l |
| 80 | foot | fot | foːt |
| 81 | leg | schanke, schonke, schank, leg, legge | ˈʃank(ə), lɛɡ |
| 82 | knee | kne | kneː, kniu̯ |
| 83 | hand | hand, hond, hande | hand, hɔnd, hɔːnd |
| 84 | wing | winge, wing, wynge, wyng | ˈwinɡ(ə) |
| 85 | belly | bouk, bouke, buk, bely, bealy | buːk, ˈbɛliː |
| 86 | guts | therm, tharm, þearm, þerm, guttes, gutes | θɛrm, θarm, ˈɡutis |
| 87 | neck | hals, halce, heals, halse, nekke, necke | hals, ˈnɛk(ə) |
| 88 | back | rigge, rygge, rig, bak, bakke | ˈridʒ(ə), ˈbak(ə) |
| 89 | breast | brest, breoste, breste | ˈbrɛːst, ˈbrøːst |
| 90 | heart | herte | ˈhɛrt(ə) |
| 91 | liver | lyvere | ˈlivər |
| 92 | to drink | drinken, drynken, drinke | ˈdrinkən |
| 93 | to eat | eten | ˈɛːtən |
| 94 | to bite | biten, byten, bite | ˈbiːtən |
| 95 | to suck | souken | ˈsuːkən |
| 96 | to spit | spitten, spitte | ˈspitən |
| 97 | to vomit | spewen, *recchen, vomiten | ˈspiu̯ən, ˈrɛtʃən, ˈrɛːtʃən, ˈvɔmitən |
| 98 | to blow | blowen | ˈblɔu̯ən |
| 99 | to breathe | brethen, breþen, brethe | ˈbrɛːðən |
| 100 | to laugh | laughen | ˈlau̯xən, ˈlaːxən |
| 101 | to see | seen, sen, seon, sein, see | ˈseːn |
| 102 | to hear | heren, hæren, heoren, hearen, hieren, here | ˈheːrən, ˈhɛːrən |
| 103 | to know | witen, witten, knowen, knawen, kno, kennen, kenne, cunnen, can | ˈwitən, ˈknɔu̯ən, ˈkɛnən, ˈkunən |
| 104 | to think | thinken, thenchen, þenchen, thinke | ˈθinkən, ˈθɛntʃən |
| 105 | to smell | smellen, smillen, smullen, stynken | ˈsmɛlən, ˈsmilən, ˈstinkən |
| 106 | to fear | agasten, dreden | ˈaɡastən, ˈdrɛːdən, ˈdreːdən |
| 107 | to sleep | slepen, sleepen, slæpen, slepe | ˈsleːpən |
| 108 | to live | lyven | ˈlivən |
| 109 | to die | sterven, sterfen, steorfen, deyen, dien, deye | ˈstɛrvən, ˈdɛi̯ən, ˈdiːən |
| 110 | to kill | sleyen, slen, killen, kille, quellen, quelle | ˈslɛi̯ən, ˈslɛːn, ˈkilən, ˈkwɛlən |
| 111 | to fight | fighten, fisten, fehten, fiȝten, feghten | ˈfixtən, ˈfɛxtən |
| 112 | to hunt | hunten, huntien, hounten | ˈhuntən |
| 113 | to hit | hitten, hutten, hetten, hitte | ˈhitən |
| 114 | to cut | cutten, kitten, kytten, hewen, hæwen, hewe, scheren, ssere, shere | ˈkutən, ˈkitən, ˈhɛu̯ən, ˈʃɛːrən |
| 115 | to split | cleven, parten, parte, sonderen, sondren, sondre | ˈkleːvən, ˈpartən, ˈsund(ə)rən |
| 116 | to stab | percen, perce, stiken, stikken, sticken, stingen, stinge, priken, pricken, prike | ˈpeːrsən, ˈstikən, ˈstinɡən, ˈprikən |
| 117 | to scratch | cracchen, scratten, scratte, scrapen, scrape | ˈkratʃən, ˈskratən, ˈskraːpən |
| 118 | to dig | graven, delven, diggen, digen | ˈɡraːvən, ˈdɛlvən, ˈdiɡən |
| 119 | to swim | swymmen | ˈswimən |
| 120 | to fly | flien, fliȝe, flyen, flen | ˈfliːən, ˈfleːn |
| 121 | to walk | gangen, gongen, gon, goon, goen, walken, wenden | ˈɡaːnɡən, ˈɡanɡən, ɡɔːn, ˈwalkən, ˈwɛndən |
| 122 | to come | comen, cumen | ˈkumən |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | lien, liggen, lyggen, liȝȝe, lie | ˈliːən, ˈlidʒən |
| 124 | to sit | sitten, citten, zitten, siten, sitte | ˈsitən |
| 125 | to stand | standen, stonden, stonde | ˈstɔːndən, ˈstandən |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | turnen, tournen, tornen, turne | ˈturnən |
| 127 | to fall | fallen, fellen, falle | ˈfalən |
| 128 | to give | yeven, yiven, ȝeven, given, yeve, give | ˈjɛːvən, ˈjiːvən, ˈɡiːvən |
| 129 | to hold | holden, halden, helden, hælden, healden, holde, halde, taken | ˈhɔːldən, ˈhaːldən, ˈhɛːldən, ˈtaːkən |
| 130 | to squeeze | wryngen, compressen | ˈwrinɡən, kɔmˈprɛsən |
| 131 | to rub | rubben, rudden | ˈrubən, ˈrudən |
| 132 | to wash | wasshen | ˈwaʃən |
| 133 | to wipe | wipen | ˈwiːpən |
| 134 | to pull | pullen, pollen, pulle, drawen, draȝen, drayen, drawe | ˈpulən, ˈdrau̯ən |
| 135 | to push | schoven, thresten, thristen, thrusten, thriste | ˈʃuːvən, ˈʃuvən, ˈθrɛstən, ˈθristən, ˈθrustən |
| 136 | to throw | werpen, throwen, þrowen, þrowȝen, thrawen, throwe | ˈwɛrpən, ˈwarpən, ˈθrɔu̯ən |
| 137 | to tie | teyen, binden, fasten, fastnen | ˈtɛi̯ən, ˈtiːən, ˈfastən, ˈfastnən |
| 138 | to sew | sewen, sowen, sue | ˈsɛu̯ən, ˈsɔu̯ən, ˈsɛu̯ən |
| 139 | to count | counten, compten, tellen | ˈkuːntən, ˈkɔntən, ˈtɛlən |
| 140 | to say | quethen, seien, speken | ˈkwɛːðən, ˈkwɛːdən, ˈsɛi̯ən, ˈspɛːkən |
| 141 | to sing | singen | ˈsinɡən |
| 142 | to play | pleyen | ˈplɛi̯ən |
| 143 | to float | fleten | ˈfleːtən |
| 144 | to flow | flowen, yeten | ˈflɔu̯ən, ˈjeːtən |
| 145 | to freeze | fresen, congelen | ˈfreːzən, kɔnˈdʒɛːlən |
| 146 | to swell | swellen, bolnen | ˈswelən, ˈbɔlnən |
| 147 | sun | sonne | ˈsun(ə) |
| 148 | moon | mone | ˈmoːn(ə) |
| 149 | star | sterre | ˈstɛr(ə) |
| 150 | water | water | ˈwatər |
| 151 | rain | reyn, rayn, rein, rain, reyne | rɛi̯n |
| 152 | river | flod, strem, ryver | floːd, strɛːm, rivˈɛːr, ˈrivər |
| 153 | lake | lake, lak, lac, mere, meere, mer | ˈlaːk(ə), ˈmeːr(ə) |
| 154 | sea | see | sɛː |
| 155 | salt | salt | salt |
| 156 | stone | ston | stɔːn |
| 157 | sand | sand | saːnd, sand, sɔnd |
| 158 | dust | dust | dust, duːst |
| 159 | earth | erthe | ˈɛrð(ə), ˈɛːrð(ə) |
| 160 | cloud | cloud, sky | kluːd, skiː |
| 161 | fog | myst | miːst, mist |
| 162 | sky | welken, skew, sky, lift | ˈwɛlkən, skiu̯, skiː, lift |
| 163 | wind | wynd | wiːnd |
| 164 | snow | snow | snɔu̯ |
| 165 | ice | is | iːs |
| 166 | smoke | smeke, smeek, smike, smoke, smook, smok | smeːk, ˈsmɔːk(ə) |
| 167 | fire | fyr | fiːr |
| 168 | ash | asshe | ˈaʃ(ə) |
| 169 | to burn | brennen, brinnen, bernen, birnen, byrnen, bern, swithen, swiþen | ˈbrɛnən, ˈbɛrnən, ˈbirnən, ˈswiːðən |
| 170 | road | wey, way, wei, strete, stret, path, paþþe, paþ | ˈwɛi̯, ˈstreːt, ˈpaːθ |
| 171 | mountain | mountayne, mount, hille, hulle, hill | muːnˈtɛi̯n(ə), muːnt, hil |
| 172 | red | red | reːd, rɛːd |
| 173 | green | grene | ˈɡreːn(ə) |
| 174 | yellow | yelow, ȝelowe, ȝelew, ȝelow, yelwe, ȝelwe | ˈjɛlɔu̯, ˈjɛlwə |
| 175 | white | whit | ʍiːt |
| 176 | black | blak, blakke, blacke, blake | blaːk, blak |
| 177 | night | nyght | nixt, niːxt |
| 178 | day | day | dɛi̯ |
| 179 | year | yere, yer, ȝere, ȝer, ȝeer, yeer | jɛːr |
| 180 | warm | warm | warm, wɛrm |
| 181 | cold | cold, chele, chile | kɔːld, tʃɛːld, ˈtʃɛːl(ə) |
| 182 | full | ful, full, fol, folle, fulle | ful |
| 183 | new | newe, neue, new, neowe, niwe | ˈniu̯(ə) |
| 184 | old | old, olde, ald, oulde, alde, eld, elde | ɔːld, aːld, ɛːld |
| 185 | good | good | ɡoːd |
| 186 | bad | yvel, badde, bad | ˈivəl, ˈuvəl, ˈeːvəl, ˈɛvəl |
| 187 | rotten | foule, foul, fowle, ful, roten, rotyn | fuːl, ˈrɔtən |
| 188 | dirty | unclene, unclen, baudy, baudi, bawdy, hory, hori | unˈklɛːn(ə), ˈbau̯diː, ˈhɔːriː |
| 189 | straight | right, ryght, riȝt, riht, streight, streiȝt, streȝt | rixt, strɛi̯xt |
| 190 | round | rounde, round, rownde, rownd | ˈruːnd(ə) |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | scharp, scharpe, sharpe, sharp, ssarpe, kene, keene | ʃarp |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | blont, blunt, dul, dulle, dol, dolle | blunt, dul, dɔl |
| 193 | smooth | smethe, smothe, even, euen, evene, flat, flatte | ˈsmeːð(ə), ˈsmoːð(ə), ˈeːvən, flat |
| 194 | wet | wet, wete, wette, wæt, moist, moiste | wɛt, wɛːt, ˈmɔi̯st(ə) |
| 195 | dry | drye, drie, dryȝe, dry, ser, sere, seere | ˈdriː(ə), sɛːr |
| 196 | correct | right, ryght, riȝt, riht, trewe, trew, true, sothe, soth, sooth, soþ | rixt, riːxt, ˈtriu̯(ə), soːθ |
| 197 | near | nere, ner, neor, neer, neygh, nygh, nye, nyȝ | neːr, nøːr, nɛi̯x, niːx |
| 198 | far | fer, ferre, fere | fɛr |
| 199 | right | right, ryght, riȝt, riht | rixt, riːxt |
| 200 | left | left, lift, lefte, lifte | lift, lɛft |
| 201 | at | on, onne, at, et | ɔn, at |
| 202 | in | in | in, iː |
| 203 | with | mid, mithe, wiþ, with | mid, mið, wiθ, wið |
| 204 | and | and | and, an |
| 205 | if | if, iffe, ȝif | if, jif |
| 206 | because | for, sithe, sithen, sin, as, bicause | fɔr, ˈsið(ə), ˈsiðən, sin, as, biˈkau̯z |
| 207 | name | name | ˈnaːm(ə) |